Ethnopharmacology of the Asteraceae family in Mexico

Cilia-López, Virginia Gabriela; Cariño-Cortés, Raquel; Zurita-Salinas, Luis Ricardo; Cilia-López, Virginia Gabriela; Cariño-Cortés, Raquel; Zurita-Salinas, Luis Ricardo

doi:10.17129/botsci.2715

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Botanical Sciences

versión On-line ISSN 2007-4476versión impresa ISSN 2007-4298

Bot. sci vol.99 no.3 México jul./sep. 2021 Epub 25-Jun-2021

https://doi.org/10.17129/botsci.2715

Review

Ethnopharmacology of the Asteraceae family in Mexico

La etnofarmacología de la familia Asteraceae en México

Virginia Gabriela Cilia-López¹^*
http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0064-4490

Raquel Cariño-Cortés²
http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4776-3534

Luis Ricardo Zurita-Salinas³
http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6127-9103

^¹ Facultad de Medicina-CIACYT, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, México.

^² Instituto de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Hidalgo Pachuca, Hidalgo, México.

^³ Licenciatura en Ciencias Ambientales y Salud, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, México.

Abstract

Background:

In Mexico, the Asteraceae are part of traditional knowledge where its members have several uses, but they are particularly remarkable in traditional medicine and are used for different purposes.

Questions:

What pharmacologically studies have been carried out with Asteraceae species used in Mexican traditional medicine? What pharmacological activities have been tested? What compounds are responsible for the tested activities?

Species studied:

Asteraceae species used in Mexican traditional medicine pharmacologically tested.

Methods:

A database including scientific studies on Asteraceae species which studies on pharmacological activity or phytochemical characterization was compiled and analyzed.

Results:

From 249 reviewed studies only 202 fulfilled the criteria for our analysis. A total of 101 species distributed in 65 genera and 16 tribes were registered. The tribes Heliantheae and Senecioneae were the most studied. Ageratina pichinchensis, Artemisia ludoviciana, Heliopsis longipes, and Heterotheca inuloides were the most studied species. In Mexico, the Asteraceae family is mainly used in the treatment of diseases or symptoms related to the digestive and respiratory systems. In 48 % of the studies some biocidal activity was evaluated but only 21.8 % included phytochemical characterizations.

Conclusions:

The antimicrobial activity and phytochemical characterizations are the main kind of ethnopharmacological studies for Asteraceae in Mexico. Most of the compounds responsible for the activities have not been identified yet. The uses of Asteraceae in Mexico are similar to other countries emphasizing its cultural importance in the world. Mexican Asteraceae should be prioritized in conservation and bioscreening schemes.

Key words: Compositae; ethnobotany; herbal medicine; natural compounds; traditional knowledge

Resumen

Antecedentes:

En México la familia Asteraceae es parte del conocimiento tradicional, sus miembros tienen varios usos, especialmente en la medicina tradicional con diferentes propósitos.

Preguntas:

¿Qué estudios farmacológicos se han realizado con especies de Asteraceae usadas en la medicina tradicional mexicana? ¿Cuáles son las actividades farmacológicas comprobadas? ¿Cuáles son los compuestos responsables de las actividades comprobadas?

Especies en estudio:

Especies de Asteraceae usadas en la medicina tradicional mexicana probadas farmacológicamente.

Métodos:

Se construyó y analizó una base de datos con estudios de asteráceas en los que se realizaron caracterizaciones fitoquímicas o estudiaron actividades farmacológicas.

Resultados:

De 249 estudios revisados solo 202 cubrieron los criterios de inclusión del análisis. Se registraron 101 especies distribuidas en 65 géneros y 16 tribus. Heliantheae y Senecioneae fueron las tribus más estudiadas. Ageratina pichinchensis, Artemisia ludoviciana, Heliopsis longipes y Heterotheca inuloides fueron las especies más estudiadas. En México, la familia Asteraceae se utiliza principalmente en el tratamiento de enfermedades o síntomas relacionados con los sistemas digestivo y respiratorio. El 48 % de los estudios evaluó alguna actividad biocida y el 21.8 % incluyen caracterizaciones fitoquímicas.

Conclusiones:

la actividad antimicrobiana y caracterizaciones fitoquímicas son los principales estudios realizados con asteráceas mexicanas. La mayoría de los compuestos responsables de las actividades farmacológicas evaluadas aún no han sido identificados. Los usos de Asteraceae en México son similares a los de otros países, lo que resalta su importancia cultural en el mundo. Las Asteraceae mexicanas debe ser priorizadas en planes de conservación y en estudios de bioprospección.

Palabras clave: Compositae; compuestos naturales; conocimiento tradicional; etnobotánica; herbolaria

Historically, the plant kingdom has been the best source of remedies for a variety of diseases and pain. Plants are primary therapeutic agents used for treating illness, an integral element of health care systems, and the best testimony of cultural importance (^{Mata et al. 2019}). In many cultures, plants are elemental for ancient traditional medicine systems and continue enriching our modern knowledge of herbal medicine. Therefore, medicinal plants have a fundamental role in the maintenance of global human health (^{Egamberdieva & Teixeira da Silva 2015}). Traditional medicine is part of the evolutionary process where humans and plants interact; communities and individuals continue to discover practices and transforming techniques. Many modern drugs have origin in ethnopharmacology and traditional medicine (^{Helmstädter & Staiger 2014}). Pharmaceutical and scientific communities have paid particular attention to medicinal plants; numerous studies have validated the traditional use of plants and characterized phytochemically large species (^{Salazar-Aranda et al. 2013}, ^{Buenz et al. 2018}).

The Mexican diversity of vascular plants has been estimated at 23,314 species (^{Villaseñor 2018}), and more than 50 % are endemic to the country. More than 3,000 are used as medicinal plants but only a small proportion (1-2 %) has been studied (^{Villaseñor 1993}, ^{Espejo-Serna et al. 2004}, ^{Salazar-Aranda et al. 2013}). Many members of Asteraceae are part of the traditional knowledge of our country where they are used as food, live fences, construction materials, and source of oils, insecticides, and garden ornamentals; however, they are specially used in traditional medicine (^{Heinrich et al. 1998}, ^{Leonti et al. 2003}, ^{Canales et al. 2005}, ^{Paredes-Flores et al. 2007}, ^{Estrada-Castillón et al. 2012}, ^{Gómez 2012}, ^{Ávila-Uribe et al. 2016}, ^{Casas et al. 2016}, ^{Vibrans 2016}, ^{Lara Reimers et al. 2019}).

The Asteraceae or Compositae is one of the largest and most diverse families, comprising 10 % of all flowering plant species, rivaled only by Orchidaceae and Fabaceae (^{Mandel et al. 2019}). It includes between 950 and 1,450 genera, with an estimated 25,000 to 35,000 species in the world and is the richest family of Mexican flora in genera and species (^{Villaseñor 2016}, ^{Mandel et al. 2019}). Mexico is considered a center of diversification of this family with 417 genera and 3,113 species and it is the richest country for the family in Neotropics (^{Villaseñor 2018}). Its wide distribution, from sea level (dunes or coastal vegetation) to the mountains, is attributed to its excellent dispersal capacity, genetic plasticity, and the presence of a wide variety of secondary metabolites synthesized as a protection strategy against predators or competitors (^{Villaseñor 2018}). The members of Asteraceae are identified by inflorescences arranged in a capitulum or head, surrounded by an involucre with involucral bracts or phyllaries. On the capitulum there are two kinds of flowers: the outermost or ray flowers and the central or disc flowers. All the flowers are gamopetalous and lack of calyx or modified in a variable and peculiar structure called pappus (^{Villaseñor 1993}). Due to its diversity, the Asteraceae family is divided in 36-38 tribes (^{Funk et al. 2005}). In Mexico, there are 24 tribes of native species and two (Arctotideae and Calenduleae) of introduced species (^{Villaseñor 2018}).

The vast diversity in Asteraceae is too reflected in the presence of different bioactive compounds important for the pharmaceutical industry (^{Kostić et al. 2020}). Members of Asteraceae are known by their pharmacological activities as antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, wound-healing, anti-hemorrhagic, antipyretic, hepatoprotective, anti-tussive, antitumor, antiparasitic, and antispasmodic (^{Carvalho et al. 2018}, ^{Panda & Luyten 2018}). Several species are used in Mexican traditional medicine since its antibacterial properties (^{Sharma et al. 2017}) and they are mainly used in the treatment of gastrointestinal, respiratory, and dental infectious diseases (^{Heinrich et al. 1998}, ^{Murillo-Álvarez et al. 2001}, ^{Hernández et al. 2003}, ^{Leonti et al. 2003}, ^{Canales et al. 2005}, ^{Paredes-Flores et al. 2007}, ^{Alonso-Castro et al. 2011}, ^{Rosas-Piñón et al. 2012}, ^{Sharma et al. 2017}, ^{Lara Reimers et al. 2019}). Some of the most popular medicinal plants used in México are estafiate (Artemisia ludoviciana), Mexican arnica (Heterotheca inuloides), zoapatle (Montanoa tomentosa), and cempazúchitl (Tagetes erecta).

More than 5,000 compounds have been identified in Asteraceae, generally associated with some pharmacological activity. The presence of sesquiterpene lactones (SQLs), diterpenes, triterpenes, inulin-type fructans, polyacetylenes, pentacyclic triterpene alcohols, benzofurans, flavones, flavonoids, and unsaturated fatty acids are common compounds in Asteraceae (^{Heywood et al. 1977a}, ^b, ^{Calabria et al. 2009}). The SQLs are the major chemical compounds in Asteraceae, with at least 3,000 known structures involved in the defense against herbivores and parasites The SQLs, acetylenic compounds, and inulin-type fructans are as characteristic of Asteraceae as their inflorescences (^{Heywood et al. 1977a}, ^b, ^{Heinrich et al. 1998}).

Despite the discovery of several secondary metabolites in Asteraceae, they attracted disproportionately little attention in the context of ethnopharmacological research, resulting in few systematic explorations and few commercialized products (^{Panda et al. 2019}, ^{Kostić et al. 2020}). In this review we answer the following questions: What pharmacologically studies have been carried out with Asteraceae species used in Mexican traditional medicine? What pharmacological activities have been tested? What compounds are responsible for the tested activities? The goal of our research was to synthesize the knowledge of the ethnopharmacology of the Asteraceae in Mexico.

Materials and methods

We conducted systematics searches for scientific studies of the pharmacological activity, or the phytochemical characterization of Asteraceae used in Mexican traditional medicine. The information was collected from scientiﬁc databases including ScienceDirect, Springerlink, Scopus, PubMed, Redalyc, Scielo, EBSCO, ACS Publications, BioMed Central, and Wiley online library, for entries published from 1983 to 2020. The keywords for our searches included: Mexican Asteraceae, medicinal Asteraceae, asteráceas mexicanas, asteráceas medicinales, Mexican traditional medicine, Asteraceae, Compositae. We only include studies that provide information on the collection site, the part used, the species identified, and the herbarium specimen, as recommended by the Guidelines on Good Herbal Processing Practices for Herbal Medicines (^{WHO 2018}).

Species were classified based on the tribe scheme for Mexican Asteraceae by ^{Villaseñor (2018)}. The nomenclature was based on taxonomic studies for the family including ^{Ortiz-Bermudez et al. (1998)}, ^{Cabrera (2001)}, ^{Funk et al. (2009)}, ^{Estrada-Castillón & Villarreal-Quintanilla (2010)}, ^{Schilling & Panero, 2011}, ^{Villaseñor & Ortiz (2012)}, ^{García-Sánchez et al. 2014}, ^{Redonda-Martínez (2017)}, ^{Redonda-Martínez (2020)}, and ^{Villarreal-Quintanilla et al. (2020)}. To identify the native species to Mexico, the studies of ^{Sosa & De-Nova (2012)} and ^{Villaseñor (2016)} were consulted. The information was arranged alphabetically by tribe, genus, species, traditional uses, and pharmacological/phytochemical studies.

Results

A total of 249 studies where pharmacological activities and/or phytochemical characterizations were assessed for Asteraceae were found. The analysis of the information was carried out with 202 studies that fulfilled the recommendations of the Guidelines on Good Herbal Processing Practices for Herbal Medicines (Appendix 1, Table A1). Forty-seven studies were not included since they were conducted with parts of plants (leaves, roots, etc.) or plant material purchased or acquired from laboratories, markets, supermarkets or they did not provide information about herbarium specimen.

A total of 101 species with ethnopharmacological and/or phytochemical studies from 16 tribes and 65 genera were recorded. Heliantheae has been the most studied tribe with 30 species and 19 genera, followed by Senecioneae with 17 species and seven genera (Appendix 1, Table A1). The remaining tribes registered less than 10 species. The states where the specimens were collected are Morelos (23), Estado de Mexico (20), Puebla (11), Mexico City (10), San Luis Potosi (10), Nuevo Leon (10), and Veracruz (10). Yucatan and Jalisco are less explored by one mention each one (Figure 1).

Figure 1 Number of collections by state of Mexican Asteraceae with ethnopharmacological studies.

The traditional uses referred in the reviewed studies are mainly on diseases or symptoms related to the digestive system (20.73 %), followed by treatment of different types of pain (15 %), and for the treatment of diseases associated to the respiratory system (10.2 %). Other uses were anti-inflammatory (7.6 %), and skin infections (7.3 %) (Table 1, Appendix 1, Table A1). From the 202 reviewed studies, 62 (30.7 %) analyzed antibacterial activity and 44 (21.8 %) were phytochemical characterizations. Other assessed activities were cytotoxicity (12.4 %) and anti-inflammatory (7 %). Some activities, such as healing, diuretic, antimalarial, aphrodisiac, immunostimulant, among others, were evaluated only once. From 101 species, 21 were evaluated for their antibacterial activity, 13 were only characterized phytochemically, and five to assess their analgesic activity. Thirty-nine were studied only once. The most studied species have been Heliopsis longipes (18 studies, Figure 2C), Ageratina pichinchensis (16, Figure 2A), Artemisia ludoviciana (13, Figure 2B), and Heterotheca inuloides (10, Figure 2D). These species were mentioned in the 28.1 % of the reviewed studies. According to their distribution, 54 species are native to Mexico, 41 are endemic, and five are introduced. The Heliantheae presented the highest proportion of native (13) and endemic (17) species, followed by Senecioneae with five native and 12 endemics (Appendix 1, Table A1).

Table 1 Traditional uses and ethnopharmacological studies of Asteraceae in Mexico

Traditional use (illness/affection/symptom)	Mentions in the reviewed studies % (*)	Activity evaluated	Studies performed % (*)
Gastrointestinal disorders/diseases: diarrhea, stomachache, dysentery, gastritis, indigestion, vomit, dyspepsia, deworming, lack of appetite, tapeworm, purge	20.73 (57)*	Antibacterial	30.7 (62)*
Aches, pain, analgesic, toothache, lumbago, migraine	15 (41)*	Phytochemical characterization	21.8 (44)*
Respiratory infections: cough, bronchitis, expectorant, flu, tuberculosis, cold, asthma	10.2 (28)*	Cytotoxity	12.4 (25)*
Anti-inflamatory, neuritis, bruises	7.6 (21)*	Antifungal	8.0 (16)*
Skin infections: welts herpes, sores, scabies, skin wounds, baby rash, dermatophytosis, astringent	7.3 (20)*	Anti-inflamatory	7.0 (14)*
Fever	5.1 (14)*	Antiprotozoal	4.95 (10)
		Spasmolityc	4.95 (10)*
Colic, spasmolytic	4 (11)*	Analgesic	4.46 (9)*
Diabetes	3.6 (10)*	Antioxidant	4.46 (9)*
Anxiolytic	2.2 (6)*	Antimicrobial	3.96 (8)*
Labor	2.2 (6)*

*Number of mentions in the reviewed studies.

Figure 2 Most studied Asteraceae in the Mexican ethnopharmacology. A) Ageratina pichinchensis (Eupatorieae), B) Artemisia ludoviciana (Anthemideae), C) Heliopsis longipes (Heliantheae), D) Heterotheca inuloides (Astereae). Images from Enciclovida. Credits: A) Neptalí Ramírez Marcial, C) Arturo de Nova, D) Bodo Nuñez Oberg.

Discussion

Traditional knowledge is the best evidence of the efficacy of medicinal plants in treating diseases, their symptoms, and other ailments (^{Firenzuoli & Gori 2007}, ^{Helmstädter & Staiger 2014}). Ethnobotany and traditional knowledge about the preparation and administration of medicinal plants provide valuable information around active compounds. Several phytochemical compounds with biological activities were discovered from traditional knowledge and they have been a starting point for new therapeutics (^{Salazar-Aranda et al. 2013}, ^{Buenz et al. 2018}). From the 122 plant-derived chemical products currently used in medicine, 80 % are used congruently to their ethnomedical application (^{Saslis-Lagoudakis et al. 2011}). These compounds have played a crucial role in treating and preventing human diseases. The artemisinin drug against parasitic diseases such as malaria was isolated from Artemisia annua used in traditional medicine for the treatment of respiratory diseases (^{Helmstädter & Staiger 2014}, ^{Helmstädter 2017}). This is a prominent example of how the traditional knowledge regarding medicinal plants plays a key role in the identification of new bioactive agents or new drugs.

Ethnopharmacology of the Asteraceae in Mexico. Heliantheae, Senecioneae, Eupatorieae, and Astereae are the tribes with the highest number of genera and species in Mexico (^{Villaseñor 2018}) and they are well represented in the reviewed ethnopharmacological and phytochemical studies. The species of Heliantheae and Senecioneae are the most evaluated and include most of the endemic studied species. On the other hand, from 26 tribes in México only 16 are represented in ethnopharmacological studies, possibly because some of them have a few species (e.g., Arctotideae, Chaenactideae, Gochnatieae, Liabeae, Onoserideae). But other tribes, such as Astereae and Eupatorieae are among the largest tribes in Asteraceae, with well-recognized species in Mexican traditional medicine. However, genera like Ageratina, Conyza, Erigeron, Eupatorium, Gymnosperma, Solidago, and Stevia, among others, are scarcely represented in ethnopharmacological studies.

From the best represented species in Mexican ethnopharmacological studies Ageratina pichinchensis (Figure 2A), named axihuitl or manrrubio, is a plant widely used in Mexican traditional medicine, whose pharmacological activities have been confirmed in preclinical and clinical studies (^{Aguilar-Guadarrama et al. 2009}, ^{Sánchez-Mendoza et al. 2013}, ^{Romero-Cerecero et al. 2017}). This species is used in the treatment of diseases caused by or related to fungal and skin infections, wounds, and to treat pain and gastric ulcers (^{Aguilar-Guadarrama et al. 2009}, ^{Sánchez-Mendoza et al. 2013}, ^{Romero-Cerecero et al. 2017}). Additionally, A. pichinchensis has wound healing, antiulcer, gastroprotective, antinociceptive, and anti-inflammatory effects (^{Sánchez-Mendoza et al. 2010}, ^{Romero-Cerecero et al. 2012a}, ^{Romero-Cerecero et al. 2013}, ^{Sánchez-Mendoza et al. 2013}). Pharmacological evaluations showed that its extracts exhibit antifungal activity against Trichophyton mentagrophytes, T. rubrum, and Candida albicans (^{Ríos et al. 2003}), and have shown therapeutic and mycological effectiveness in patients with vulvovaginal candidiasis (^{Romero-Cerecero et al. 2017}). The antimicrobial activity of encecalin, taraxerol, β-sitosterol, and stigmasterol isolated from this species has been demonstrated (^{Aguilar-Guadarrama et al. 2009}). The antinociceptive activity and gastroprotective effect of A. pichinchensis are related to the presence of 3,5-diprenyl-4-hydroxyacetophenone (HYDP) isolated from its leaves (^{Sánchez-Mendoza et al. 2013}). Studies showed that 7-O-(b-D-glucopyranosyl)-galactin is the compound associated with the effects of A. pichinchensis in cell proliferation and healing activity in skin lesions in an animal model of diabetes (^{Romero-Cerecero et al. 2013}, ^{Romero-Cerecero 2014}). The healing properties of A. pichinchensis have been assessed in human clinical trials. It has demonstrated effectiveness in the treatment of chronic venous leg ulcers (^{Romero-Cerecero et al. 2012a}), and diabetic foot ulcers (^{Romero-Cerecero et al. 2015b}).

Artemisia ludoviciana (Figure 2B) has been used in Mexican traditional medicine since pre-Hispanic times. It is commonly named estafiate, ajenjo del país, azumate, or iztauhyatl (^{Calzada et al. 2007}, ^{Estrada-Soto et al. 2012}, ^{Anaya-Eugenio et al. 2016}). This species is widely used to treat gastrointestinal disorders as parasites, indigestion, diarrhea, and dysentery. Also, it is used in the treatment of colic, bronchitis, dandruff, inflammation, diabetes, antimalarial, and analgesic (^{Calzada et al. 2007}, ^{Estrada-Soto et al. 2012}, ^{Anaya-Eugenio et al. 2016}). Studies in animal models have described antidiarrheal and antispasmodic activities of the essential oil obtained from aerial parts from A. ludoviciana (^{Said Fernández et al. 2005}, ^{Calzada et al. 2010}, ^{Estrada-Soto et al. 2012}). Leaf extracts from this plant have antimicrobial activity against microorganisms responsible for gastrointestinal diseases such as Entamoeba histolytica, Escherichia coli, Giardia lamblia, Vibrio cholerae, and other responsible for infectious diseases as Candida albicans, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus aureus (^{Navarro et al. 1996}, ^{Said Fernández et al. 2005}, ^{Damián-Badillo et al. 2008}). Most relevant is the activity of A. ludociviana against Helicobacter pylori, the major etiological agent of chronic gastritis and peptic ulcer disease linked to gastric carcinoma (^{Castillo-Juárez et al. 2009}). It has been documented its anti-Mycobacterium tuberculosis activity (^{Jiménez-Arellanes et al. 2003}). However, the compounds responsible for the mentioned antimicrobial activities have not elucidated yet. Additionally, ^{Anaya-Eugenio et al. (2014)} demonstrated the hypoglycemic and antihyperglycemic effects of arglanin and salvinine isolated from A. ludoviciana in mice, which supports its effectiveness in the treatment of diabetes in folk medicine.

Heliopsis longipes (Figure 2C), named chilcuague, chilcuán, pelitre, raíz de oro, and pyrethrum; it is endemic to the Sierra Gorda and Sierra de Álvarez in the limits of the states of Guanajuato, San Luis Potosí, and Querétaro (^{Cilia-López et al. 2008}). This species is employed to calm toothaches, muscle aches, arthritis, rheumatism, as anti-inflammatory, in the treatment of oral herpes, oral infections, deworming, diarrhea, and muscle soreness (^{Cilia-López et al. 2008}). It has antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli, as well as antifungal and anti-aflatoxigenic activity (^{Molina-Torres et al. 1999}, ^{Buitimea-Cantúa et al. 2020}). The anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, and anti-arthritic activities of H. longipes have been demonstrated in animal models (^{Acosta-Madrid et al. 2009}, ^{Hernández et al. 2009}, ^{Cariño-Cortés et al. 2010}, ^{Cilia-López et al. 2010}, ^{Arriaga-Alba et al. 2013}, ^{Escobedo-Martínez et al. 2017}, ^{de la Rosa-Lugo et al. 2017}). It has been demonstrated that its anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic activities are higher than the reference drug phenylbutazone. Moreover, its extracts prevent the occurrence of secondary lesions, this makes it a better alternative for this type of chronic condition (^{Escobedo-Martínez et al. 2017}). These biological activities are attributed to affinin, the main bioactive compound present in the roots of H. longipes (^{Molina-Torres et al. 1999}). ^{Ríos et al. (2007)} established that the GABAergic system is involved in the analgesic response of affinin in H. longipes and ^{de la Rosa-Lugo et al. (2017)} indicate that it can be used for the treatment of orofacial pain. Affinin also induces the vasodilation showing its therapeutic potential in the treatment of cardiovascular diseases (^{Castro-Ruiz et al. 2017}). In addition, the antimutagenic activity of affinin has been demonstrated (^{Cariño-Cortés et al. 2010}, ^{Arriaga-Alba et al. 2013}).

Heterotheca inuloides (Figure 2D) is one of the most used plants in Mexican traditional medicine with a high market demand. It is commonly named Mexican arnica, acahual, cuauteteco, and xochihuepal (^{Rodríguez-Chávez et al. 2017}). This species is widely used for the treatment of inflammatory conditions, skin wounds, fever, contusions, bruises, biliary disorders, cough, respiratory problems, gastritis, hemorrhoids, rheumatism, toothache, and urinary tract inflammation (^{Gené et al. 1998}, ^{Delgado et al. 2001}, ^{Rodríguez-Chávez et al. 2017}, ^{Egas et al. 2018}). It has antibacterial activity against Helicobacter pylori and Streptococcus mutans and its flowers are effective against Giardia intestinalis trophozoites (^{Rosas-Piñón et al. 2012}, ^{Rodríguez-Chávez et al. 2015c}, ^{Egas et al. 2018}). Several studies have assessed the anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive activities of H. inuloides in different pharmacological models (^{Gené et al. 1998}, ^{Delgado et al. 2001}, ^{Maldonado-López et al. 2008}, ^{Egas et al. 2015}, ^{Rodríguez-Chávez et al. 2015a}). The anti-inflammatory activity of H. inuloides has been associated to the presence of quercetin and sesquiterpenes (^{Delgado et al. 2001}, ^{Maldonado-López et al. 2008}). The hepatoprotective and chemopreventive activities of H. inuloides are associated with the antioxidant activity of quercetin, one of the main compounds of this plant (^{Coballase-Urrutia et al. 2011}, ^{Ruiz-Pérez et al. 2014}). The cytotoxic properties, chelating, and tyrosinase inhibitory activity of H. inuloides have been described (^{Rodríguez-Chávez et al. 2017}). Infusions of this plant showed antioxidant activity in vitro (^{Coballase-Urrutia et al. 2010}, ^{Rodríguez-Chávez et al. 2015a}, ^{Rodríguez-Chávez et al. 2015c}).

Traditional medicinal uses and the pharmacological activities of compounds. Many studies on Asteraceae around the world focused on chemical analysis, have nearly isolated 7,000 different compounds (^{Panda & Luyten 2018}). Ethnopharmacological studies have been useful in the identification of phytochemical compounds since they involve the characterization and isolation of compounds with pharmacological activity. The Asteraceae family in Mexican traditional medicine is mainly used in the treatment of gastrointestinal and respiratory diseases due to its antimicrobial activity (^{Murillo-Álvarez et al. 2001}, ^{Canales et al. 2005}, ^{Calzada et al. 2009}, ^{Salazar-Aranda et al. 2011}, ^{Rosas-Piñón et al. 2012}, ^{Robles-Zepeda et al. 2013}). The use of this family in Mexico for the treatment of diseases related to the digestive system is similar to other countries as Nepal, New Zealand, and South Africa, where several of its species are used to treat infectious diseases (^{Saslis-Lagoudakis et al. 2011}). The frequent use of Asteraceae as antimicrobial resources in different cultures highlights the importance of the family in the entire world and reveal cultural and chemical patterns where common traditional uses are similar in plant groups to treat related conditions or diseases.

The presence of secondary metabolites in Asteraceae as polyacetylenes and flavonoids with antibacterial and bacteriostatic activities, confirm the traditional medicine use of the family in the treatment of infectious diseases (^{Heinrich et al. 1998}, ^{Calabria et al. 2009}). In the reviewed studies, some compounds with antimicrobial activities have been identified, especially those against bacteria causing infectious diseases, such as diarrhea, pneumonia, and tuberculosis. Research related to new natural antibiotics has a crucial worldwide interest, due to bacterial resistance. Microorganisms responsible for worrying and often fatal infections such as Candida albicans, Escherichia coli, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumonia, and Trypanosoma spp. are a worldwide concern, highlighting the importance of antibiotics research to treat these diseases (^{OMS 2016}). Natural products have been a source of bactericides in traditional medicine, and they have been served as potential therapeutics against pathogenic bacteria since the golden age of antibiotics in the mid-20th century (^{Rossiter et al. 2017}). However, the exploration of natural products as a source for new antibiotics has been greatly reduced over the past 20 years (^{Silver 2015}).

The main pharmacological activity in the reviewed studies is antimicrobial. The ent-trachyloban-19-oic acid, isolated from the roots of Iostephane heterophylla (Figure 3C), is a potent antibacterial agent in the treatment of oral pathogens as Streptococcus mutans (^{Hernández et al. 2012}). Two SQLs identified in Ambrosia confertiflora, santamarine and reynosin have bactericidal activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis (^{Coronado-Aceves et al. 2016}). Thymol esters of different short-chain fatty acids are the active principles for antimicrobial activity of Hofmeisteria schaffneri (Figure 3B) against Bacillus subtilis, Candida albicans, and Staphylococcus aureus, three of the main microorganisms responsible for several infections (^{Pérez-Vásquez et al. 2011}). Essential oil and 5-(3-buten-1-ynyl)-2, 2'-bithieny of Chrysactinia mexicana (Figure 3A) have antibacterial activity against Streptococcus pneumoniae, one of the major agents of infectious diseases of the respiratory tract and resistant to penicillin (^{Guevara Campos et al. 2011}). The encecalin and demethylencecalin isolated from Helianthella quinquenervis exhibited antifungal activity against Trichophyton mentagrophytes responsible for various skin infections (^{Castañeda et al. 1996}). Ambrosin and incomptine B, two SQLs, isolated from Parthenium hysterophorus (Figure 3D) and Decachaeta incompta possess high trypanocidal activity. Both compounds are more effective than the current trypanocidal drugs used clinically (^{Sepúlveda-Robles et al. 2019}).

Figure 3 Some important Asteraceae to the ethnopharmacology in Mexico. A) Chrysactinia mexicana (Tageteae), B) Hofmeisteria schaffneri (Eupatorieae), C) Iosthephane heterophylla (Heliantheae), D) Parthenium hysterophorus (Heliantheae). Images from Enciclovida. Credits: A) Arturo Cruz, B) Ignacio Vargas, C) Guillermo Ibarra, D) Aaron Balam.

Other pharmacological activities evaluated in the reviewed studies were cytotoxicity, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antioxidant, and spasmolytic (Table 1). The hofmeisterin III and other thymyl derivatives are the main antinociceptive agents from Hofmeisteria schaffneri (Figure 3B) (^{Angeles-López et al. 2010}). In Calea ternifolia used in the treatment of diabetes, the chromenes 1 and 2, caleins A, and C compounds were identified. These compounds reduced the postprandial hyperglycemia, one of the most common abnormalities in the early phase of type 2 diabetes (^{Escandón-Rivera et al. 2017}). Vernonia liatroides endemic to Mexico and used in menstrual disorders and dysentery, have been identified the sesquiterpenes α-methylene γ-lacton, which has muscle relaxant activity in animal models (^{Campos et al. 2003}). Two species have been tested against cancer cell lines, Gonzalezia decurrens, which has displayed cytotoxic activity against colon cancer in vitro (^{Marquina et al. 2001}), and Smallanthus maculatus, from which ursolic acid was isolated and showed cytotoxic activity against cancer cell lines (^{Jacobo-Herrera et al. 2016}).

Limitations of the reviewed studies. In the current review, 43 % of the studies report pharmacological activities but the responsible compounds have not been identified, and some species were studied only once. For example, Artemisia ludoviciana is one of the most studied species and its potent antimicrobial activity has been assessed, but the responsible compounds have not been identified. In the other hand, 8 % of the studies are phytochemical characterizations where the pharmacological activity of the compounds was not assessed.

The ^{WHO (2018)} recommends that ethnopharmacological studies of medicinal plants should be supported by information of herbarium specimen, used part of the plant, traditional preparation, among others. However, in our review, 47 studies do not include information on herbarium specimens and/or traditional uses, so the identification of the studied species cannot be corroborated. Providing this information is crucial, especially since the ultimate goal of ethnopharmacological studies is to ensure the safe and correct use of herbal remedies (^{Davidson et al. 2013}, ^{Helmstädter & Staiger 2014}, ^{Helmstädter 2017}).

There are other impediments to using ethnopharmacology in the drug discovery process that limit the growth of herbal medicine as an industry to perform bioprospecting, as the generational loss of traditional medicine knowledge, loss of biodiversity, over-exploitation, and a historic lack of a legal framework on the use of medicinal plants (^{Buenz et al. 2018}, ^{Mata et al. 2019}). In addition, studies on medicinal plants should involve a sustainable approach based on traditional knowledge, regulation, and quality control as essential points the development of a rational use of traditional medicine and herbal remedies (^{Buenz et al. 2018}, ^{Mata et al. 2019}).

Acknowledgments

We want to thank the anonymous reviewers and section editor who their comments helped us to improve the structure of this review.

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Appendix 1

Table A1 Ethnopharmacological studies for the Asteraceae family in Mexico from 1983 to 2020

Tribu	Species	Ethnomedicinal use	Tested activity/study	Studies
ANTHEMIDEAE	Artemisia absinthium L. (INT)	Stomach-ache, labor, colic, bile, diarrhea	Antibacterial, antiprotozoal	Hernández et al. (2003), Canales et al. (2005), Calzada et al. (2007)
	Artemisia ludoviciana Nutt. (NAT)	Gastrointestinal disorders, parasitic diseases, upset stomach, diarrhea, dysentery, antispasmodic, malfunction of the gall bladder, pain, diabetes, colds, bronchitis, throat, head sores	Phytochemical characterization, antiprotozoal, antimalarial, antifungal, analgesic, antibacterial, muscle relaxant	Ruiz-Cancino et al. (1993), Navarro et al. (1996), Malagón et al. (1997), Hernández et al. (2003), Jiménez-Arellanes et al. (2003), Said Fernández et al. (2005), Calzada et al. (2007), Damián-Badillo et al. (2008), Castillo-Juárez et al. (2009), Calzada et al. (2010), Estrada-Soto et al. (2012), Anaya-Eugenio et al. (2014), Anaya-Eugenio et al. (2016)
	Matricaria recutita L. (INT)	Sedative, spasmolytic, anti-inflammatory stomachaches, menstrual colic, eyewash, anxiety	Antibacterial, antiprotozoal, anxiolytic, phytochemical characterization	Avallone et al. (2000), Hernández et al. (2003), Calzada et al. (2007), Calzada et al. (2010)
	Tanacetum parthenium (L.) Sch. Bip. (INT)	Convulsions, susto (fear), migraine, epilepsy, sedative, migraine, headache, rheumatoid arthritis, stomachache, toothache, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic	Antibacterial, anxiolytic, antidepressant	Hernández et al. (2003), Cárdenas et al. (2017)
ASTEREAE	Baccharis conferta Kunth (NAT)	Cold, vomit, sickness	Antibacterial, anti-helmintic	Rocha-Gracia et al. (2011), Cortes-Morales et al. (2019)
	Baccharis heterophylla Kunth (NAT)	Fever, wound healing	Muscle relaxant, spasmolytic	Rojas et al. (1999), Rojas et al. (2003)
	Baccharis glutinosa Pers. (NAT) (Baccharis salicina Torr. & A.Gray)		Antibacterial, cytotoxicity, antifungal.	Murillo-Álvarez et al. (2001), Tequida-Meneses et al. (2002), Medina-López et al. (2016)
	Gymnosperma glutinosum (Spreng.) Less. (NAT)	Diarrhea, anti-inflammatory, renal diseases, pain, fever, cancer	Spasmolytic, phytochemical characterization, antibacterial, antifungal, toxicity, antitumoral, cytotoxicity, analgesic, anti-inflammatory,	Rojas et al. (1995), Hernández et al. (2003), Canales et al. (2007), Gómez-Flores et al. (2009), Gómez-Flores et al. (2012), Quintanilla-Licea et al. (2012), Hernández et al. (2015), Gómez-Flores et al. (2016), Alonso-Castro et al. (2017)
	Heterotheca inuloides Cass. (END)	Bruises, pain, anti-inflammatory, wounds, bruises, rheumatisms, colic and other painful conditions	Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antibacterial, toxicity, antiprotozoal, phytochemical characterization, nematicide, cytotoxicity, anti-mutagenic, osteoarthritis model, hepatoprotective	Gené et al. (1998), Delgado et al. (2001), Maldonado-López et al. (2008), Coballase-Urrutia et al. (2010, 2011), Rosas-Piñón et al. (2012), Flores-San Martin et al. (2013), Ruiz-Pérez et al. (2014), Rodríguez-Chávez et al. (2015a), Rodríguez-Chávez et al. (2015b), Rodríguez-Chávez et al. (2015c), Egas et al. (2015), Egas et al. (2018), Rodríguez-Chávez et al. (2018)
	Laennecia filaginoides DC (NAT) (Conyza filaginoides Hieron)	Gastrointestinal diseases, hepatic cramps, bile	Spasmolytic, antimicrobial, antiprotozoal, antieishmaniana	Rojas et al. (1995), Gutiérrez-Lugo et al. (1996), Calzada et al. (1998), Calzada et al. (2001), Delgado-Altamirano et al. (2017)
	Laennecia schiedeana (Less.) G.L. Nesom (NAT)	Gastrointestinal diseases, bronchitis, gut, rheumatism, fever, sedative, anti-inflammatory	Phytochemical characterization	Arciniegas et al. (2011)
	Xanthisma spinulosum (Pursh) D.R. Morgan & R.L. Hartm. (END) (Haplopappus spinulosus (Pursh) DC. subsp. scrabellus (Greene) Hall )		Antibacterial, cytotoxicity	Murillo-Álvarez et al. (2001)
	Xylothamia diffusa (Benth.) G.L.Nesom (NAT) (Haplopappus sonoriensis (Gray) Blake)	Bodily shaking, fever, cold	Antibacterial, cytotoxicity	Murillo-Álvarez et al. (2001), Murillo et al. (2003)
CALENDULEAE	Calendula oficinalis L. (INT)	Analgesic, antiseptic, wound healing	Antibacterial	Rodriguez-Garcia et al. (2010), Rosas-Piñón et al. (2012)
CARDUEAE	Centaurea melitensis L. (INT) (Centaurea americana Nutt.)	Liver damage	Antitumoral	Torres-González et al. (2011)
	Cirsium mexicanum DC (NAT)	Cancer, diabetes	Antimicrobial	Rosas-Piñón et al. (2012), Knauth et al. (2018)
COREOPSIDEAE	Bidens odorata Cav. (NAT)	Gastrointestinal diseases, kidney pain, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, hypoglycemic, pulmonary, cough	Diuretic, lipid-lowering, phytochemical characterization, hypocholesterolemic, antibacterial, antidiarrheal	Meléndez-Camargo et al. (2004), Astudillo-Vázquez et al. (2008), Zavala-Mendoza et al. (2013), Moreno-Peña et al. (2017), Hernández-Sánchez et al. (2018)
	Bidens pilosa L. (NAT)	Anti-inflammatory, diabetes, astringent, emmenagogue	Antibacterial, cytotoxicity, spasmolytic,	Murillo-Álvarez et al. (2001), Arroyo et al. (2004)
	Cosmos pringlei B.L. Rob. & Fernald (END)	Stomachaches, toothaches, headaches, dysentery, improving circulation	Phytochemical characterization	Mata et al. (2002)
EUPATORIEAE	Ageratina pichinchensis (Kunth) R.M. King & H. Rob (NAT) (Eupatorium aschenbornianum S.Schauer)	Dermatophytosis, skin infections, wounds, tumors, cancer sores, skin injuries, treat pain, gastric ulcers, skin wounds	Antimicrobial, antifungal, healing, genotoxicity phytochemical characterization, anti-inflammatory, anti-sores, antiulcer analgesic, gastroprotective	Navarro García et al. (2003), Ríos et al. (2003), Romero-Cerecero et al. (2006), Romero-Cerecero et al. (2008), Aguilar-Guadarrama et al. (2009), Romero-Cerecero et al. (2009), Sánchez-Mendoza et al. (2010), Romero-Cerecero et al. (2012a), Romero-Cerecero (2012b), Romero-Cerecero et al. (2013), Sánchez-Mendoza et al. (2013), Romero-Cerecero et al. (2014), Romero-Cerecero et al. (2015a,b), Romero-Cerecero et al. (2017), Sánchez-Ramos et al. (2018)
	Brickellia cavanillesii (Cass.) A. Gray (END)	Diabetes, stomachache, liver diseases, diarrhea, cardiovascular diseases, treatment of ulcers, dyspepsia, analgesic, tapeworm, indigestion, colic, hypertension, anxiety	Vasorelaxing, anxiolytic, hypoglycemic	Aguirre-Crespo et al. (2005), Escandón-Rivera et al. (2012), Ávila-Villarreal et al. (2016)
	Brickellia paniculata (Mill.) B.L. Rob. (NAT)	Colic, abdominal pain, watery diarrhea	Anti-inflammatory, spasmolytic	Meckes et al. (2002), Meckes et al. (2004)
	Brickellia veronicifolia (Kunth) A. Gray (NAT)	Diabetes, gastroenteritis, diarrhea, pain, stomachache, biliary colic, dyspepsia, arthritis, topic inflammations, infectious diseases, gastritis	Hypoglycemic, antibacterial, analgesic, phytochemical characterization, anti-mutagenic, toxicity, spasmolytic, antioxidant	Pérez-Gutiérrez et al. (1998), Perez et al. (2000), Hernández et al. (2003), Pérez et al. (2004), Rivero-Cruz et al. (2006), Calzada et al. (2007), Palacios-Espinosa et al. (2008)
	Decachaeta incompta DC (NAT)	Diarrhea, dysentery	Antibacterial, antiprotozoal, trypanocidal	Calzada et al. (2009), Bautista et al. (2012), Velázquez-Domínguez et al. (2013), Sepúlveda-Robles et al. (2019)
	Hofmeisteria schaffneri (A. Gray) R.M. King & H. Rob (END)	Skin wounds, fevers, gastrointestinal ailments, stomach aches, dyspepsia, bleeding diarrhea, topic antiseptic agent	Toxicity, analgesic, antifungal, antimicrobial, phytochemical characterization, spasmolytic	Pérez-Vásquez et al. (2005), Pérez-Vásquez et al. (2008), Ángeles-López et al. (2010), Pérez-Vásquez et al. (2011), Pérez-Vásquez et al. (2017)
	Piqueria trinervia Cav. (NAT)	Typhus, fever, malaria, tetanus, diarrhea, antipyretic, abdominal pain	Antifungal, antibacterial, antiprotozoal, molluscicidal	Cruz-Reyes et al. (1989), Saad et al. (2000), Ruiz de Esparza et al. (2007), Rufino-González et al. (2017)
	Stevia salicifolia Cav. (NAT)	Gastrointestinal disorders	Phytochemical characterization	Mata et al. (1992), Meléndez-Rodríguez et al. (2002)
GNAPHALIEAE	Anaphalis margaritacea (L.) Benth. & Hook f. (NAT)	Cough, respiratory problems, colds, rheumatism.	Antibacterial, cytotoxicity	Murillo-Álvarez et al. (2001)
	Gamochaeta americana (Mill.) (NAT) (Gnaphallium americanum)	Cough, cold, bronchitis, angina ache	Antibacterial	Rojas et al. (2001)
	Gnaphalium purpureum L. (NAT) (Gamochaeta purpurea (L.) Cabrera)		Antibacterial, cytotoxicity	Murillo-Álvarez et al. (2001)
	Gnaphalium attenuatum (NAT) (Pseudognaphalium attenuatum (DC.) Anderb.)	Respiratory illnesses	Antibacterial	Enciso-Díaz et al. (2012)
	Pseudognaphalium conoideum (Kunth) Anderb.(END) (Gnaphalium conoideum)	Stomach diseases, swellings, wounds, prostatism, lumbago, neuritis, angina ache, blood pressure, diuretic, antipyretic, malarial	Spasmolytic	Campos-Bedolla et al. (2005)
	Pseudognaphalium monticola (McVaugh) Villarreal, A.E. Estrada & Encina, stat. nov. (NAT) (Gnaphallium liebmannii var. montícola)	Respiratory diseases such as flu, fever, asthma, cough, cold, bronchitis, expectorating, and bronchial affections	Antibacterial, phytochemical characterization, muscle relaxant	Villagómez-Ibarra et al. (2001), Sánchez-Mendoza et al. (2007), Rodríguez-Ramos & Navarrete. (2009)
	Pseudognaphalium nataliae (F.J. Espinosa) Villarreal, A.E. Estrada & Encina, stat. nov. (NAT) (Gnaphallium oxyphillum)	Cough, bronchial affections, expectorating	Antibacterial	Rojas et al. (2001), Villagómez-Ibarra et al. (2001)
	Pseudognaphalium viscosum (Kunth) Anderb. (NAT) (Gnaphalium viscosum)	Flu, fever, asthma, bronchitis, cough	Antibacterial	Villagómez-Ibarra et al. (2001)
HELENIEAE	Helenium mexicanum Kunth (NAT)	Antiseptic, acaricide, sternutative	Antibacterial	Barrera-Figueroa et al. (2011)
HELIANTHEAE	Aldama latibracteata (Hemsl.) E.E. Schill. & Panero (END) (Viguiera latibracteata (Hemsl.) Blake)		Cytotoxicity, antimicrobial, phytochemical characterization	Villarreal et al. (1994)
	Ambrosia ambrosioides (Cav.) W.W. Payne (NAT)	Wounds, sores, placental expulsion, menstrual symptoms, hair diseases	Antibacterial	Robles-Zepeda et al. (2013)
	Ambrosia confertiflora DC. (NAT)	Intestinal parasites, stomachache, fever, lack of appetite, menstrual symptoms	Antibacterial, larvicidal, cytotoxic	de la Torre Rodríguez et al. (2013), Robles-Zepeda et al. (2013), Coronado-Aceves et al. (2016)
	Ambrosia monogyra (Torr. & A.Gray) Strother & B.G.Baldwin (NAT) (Hymenoclea monogyra Torr. & Gray)		Antibacterial, cytotoxicity	Murillo-Álvarez et al. (2001)
	Ambrosia psilostachya DC. (NAT)		Antibacterial, cytotoxicity	Murillo-Álvarez et al. (2001)
	Dendroviguiera quinqueradiata (Cav.) E.E. Schill. & Panero (END) (Viguiera quinqueradiata (Cav.) A. Gray)		Cytotoxicity, antibacterial, phytochemical characterization	Villarreal et al. (1994)
	Encelia laciniata Vasey & Rose (END)		Antibacterial, insecticide	Proksch et al. (1983)
	Encelia palmeri Vasey & Rose (END)		Antibacterial, insecticide	Proksch et al. (1983)
	Encelia ventorum Brandegee (END)		Antibacterial, insecticide	Proksch et al. (1983)
	Flaveria trinervia (Spreng.) C. Mohr (NAT)	Diarrhea, dysentery	Antiprotozoal, antibacterial	Tapia-Pérez et al. (2003), Osuna et al. (2005)
	Flourensia cernua DC. (NAT)	Indigestion, expectorant, respiratory infections, tuberculosis	Antibacterial	Molina-Salinas et al. (2006), Molina-Salinas et al. (2011), Vásquez Rivera et al. (2014)
	Gonzalezia decurrens (A. Gray) E.E. Schill. & Panero (END) (Viguiera decurrens A. Gray)	Infections, wounds, boils, and to alleviate gastric ulcers	Phytochemical characterization, cytotoxicity, insecticide	Marquina et al. (2001)
	Gonzalezia hypargyrea (Greenm.) E.E. Schill. & Panero (END) (Viguiera hypargyrea Greenm.)	Gastrointestinal disorders	Cytotoxicity, anti-spasmodic, antibacterial, phytochemical characterization	Villarreal et al. (1994), Zamilpa et al. (2002)
	Helianthella quinquenervis (Hook.) A. Gray (NAT)	Deworming, gastrointestinal ailments, ulcers	Antibacterial, cytotoxicity, antifungal, antiprotozoal	Castañeda et al. (1996), Gutiérrez-Lugo et al. (1996), Calzada et al. (1998)
	Heliopsis longipes (A. Gray) S.F. Blake (END)	Muscle and toothaches, deworming, insecticide	Antibacterial, cytotoxicity, analgesic, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, genotoxic, spermicide, vasodilator, anti-arthritic, anti-mutagenic, herbal remedy/drug interaction	Gutiérrez-Lugo et al. (1996), Molina-Torres et al. (1999), Molina-Torres et al. (2004), Ríos et al. (2007), Damián-Badillo et al. (2008), Acosta-Madrid et al. (2009), Hernández et al. (2009), Ortiz et al. (2009), Rodeiro et al. (2009), Cariño-Cortés et al. (2010), Cilia-López et al. (2010), Déciga-Campos et al. (2010), Arriaga-Alba et al. (2013), Martínez-Loredo et al. (2016), Castro-Ruiz et al. (2017), Escobedo-Martínez et al. (2017), de la Rosa-Lugo et al. (2017), Buitimea-Cantúa et al. (2020)
	Iostephane heterophylla (Cav.) Hemsl. (END)	Arthritis, rheumatism, pain, diabetes, gastrointestinal ailments, dysentery, skin problems	Phytochemical characterization, antibacterial	Aguilar et al. (2001), Mata et al. (2001), Aguilar et al. (2007), Hernández et al. (2012), Ramírez et al. (2012), Rosas-Piñón et al. (2012)
	Montanoa frutescens (Mairet ex DC.) Hemsl. (END)	Aphrodisiac, anxiolytic, labor	Anxiolytic, ejaculatory,	Carro-Juárez et al. (2012), Carro-Juárez et al. (2014), Rodríguez-Landa et al. (2014), Rodríguez-Landa et al. (2018)
	Montanoa grandiflora Alamán ex DC. (END)	Aphrodisiac, anxiolytic, labor	Anxiolytic, ejaculatory	Carro-Juárez et al. (2014), Rodríguez-Landa et al. (2014), Rodríguez-Landa et al. (2018)
	Montanoa tomentosa Cerv. (NAT)	Aphrodisiac, anxiolytic, labor	Toxicity, aphrodisiac, anxiolytic, phytochemical characterization, ejaculatory,	Gallegos et al. (1983), Southam et al (1983), Carro-Juárez et al. (2004), Sollozo-Dupont (2015), Carro-Juárez et al. (2014), Estrada-Camarena et al. (2019)
	12Neurolaena oaxacana B.L. Turner (END)		Phytochemical characterization	Passreiter et al. (1999)
	Parthenium hysterophorus L. (NAT)	Anti-inflammatory, insecticide, stomachache, fever, scabies, welts herpes	Antibacterial, trypanocidal activity	Sánchez-Medina et al. (2001), Sepúlveda-Robles et al. (2019)
	Parthenium tomentosum DC. (END)	Gastrointestinal disorders	Spasmolitic	Rojas et al. (1995)
	Perityle batopilensis A.M. Powell (END)		Antibacterial, cytotoxicity	Gutiérrez-Lugo et al. (1996)
	Ratibida latipalearis E.L. Richards (END)	Skin wounds, anti-inflammatory, headaches	Phytochemical characterization, bactericidal	Rojas et al. (1991), Rojas et al. (1992)
	Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray (NAT)	Diabetes, skin infections	Anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, phytochemical characterization, hypoglycemic	Bork et al. (1996), Villarreal-Ibarra et al. (2015)
	Verbesina abscondita Klatt (END)	Respiratory illness	Antibacterial,	Rocha-Gracia et al. (2011)
	Viguiera dentata (Cav.) Spreng. (NAT)	Labor, baby rash, ant sting	Phytochemical characterization, antifungal, antimicrobial	Gao et al. (1985a), Peraza-Sánchez et al. (2005), Canales et al. (2008)
	Viguiera potosina S.F. Blake (END)		Phytochemical characterization	Gao et al. (1985b)
	Xanthium strumarium L. (NAT)		Antibacterial, cytotoxicity	Murillo-Álvarez et al. (2001)
	Zinnia grandiflora Nutt. (NAT)	Anti-inflammatory	Phytochemical characterization, analgesic	Reyes-Pérez et al. (2019)
INULEAE	Epaltes mexicana Less. (NAT)	Antibacterial	Phytochemical characterization, antibacterial	Kato et al (1996)
MILLERIEAE	Smallanthus maculatus (Cav.) H Rob. (NAT)	Gastrointestinal diseases	Phytochemical characterization, cytotoxicity	Ríos & León (2006), Jacobo-Herrera et al. 2016
NASSAUVIEAE	Acourtia cordata (Cerv.) B. L. Turner (END) (Perezia hebeclada (DC.) A. Gray)	Purge	Antibacterial	Rocha-Gracia et al. (2011)
	Acourtia humboldtii (Less.) B.L. Turner (END) (Acourtia thurberi (A. Gray) Reveal & R.M.King)	Pain, rheumatism, renal, hepatic, gastrointestinal ailments, diabetes	Hypoglycemic	Martínez et al. (2017)
	Trixis silvatica B.L. Rob. & Greenm. (END)	Cathartic, muscle pain, stomach illness	Antibacterial	Rocha-Gracia et al. (2011)
NEUROLAENEAE	Calea ternifolia Kunth (NAT)	Treating colic, fever, cough, diabetes	Phytochemical characterization, hypoglycemic	Fischer et al. (1984), Escandón-Rivera et al. (2017)
SENECIONEAE	Barkleyanthus salicifolius (Kunth) H. Rob. & Brettell (NAT)	Anti-inflammatory, migraine, liver and kidney disease	Antioxidant	Domínguez et al. (2005)
	Pittocaulon bombycophole (Bullock) H. Rob. & Brettell (END)	Anti-inflammatory, wound healing	Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antifungal, antibacterial	Marín-Loaiza et al. (2008), Marín-Loaiza (2013)
	Pittocaulon filare (McVaugh) H. Rob. & Brettell (END)	Anti-inflammatory	Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antifungal, antibacterial	Marín-Loaiza et al. (2008), Marín-Loaiza (2013)
	Pittocaulon hintonii H. Rob. & Brttell (END)	Anti-inflammatory	Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antifungal, antibacterial	Marín-Loaiza et al. (2008), Marín-Loaiza (2013)
	Pittocaulon praecox (Cav.) H. Rob. & Brettell (END)	Anti-inflammatory	Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antifungal, antibacterial	Marín-Loaiza et al. (2008), Marín-Loaiza (2013)
	Pittocaulon velatum (Greenm.) H. Rob. & Brettell (NAT)	Anti-inflammatory	Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antifungal, antibacterial	Marín-Loaiza et al. (2008), Marín-Loaiza (2013)
	Psacaliopsis purpusii (Greenm.) H. Rob. & Brettell (END)		Antibacterial	Rocha-Gracia et al. (2011)
	Psacalium peltatum (Kunth) Cass. (END) (Psacalium palladium (H.B.K.) Cass.)	Immunomodulatory agent, cancer	Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, hypoglycemic, immunostimulant, cytotoxicity,	Alarcón-Aguilar et al. (2010), Juárez-Vázquez et al. (2013)
	Psacalium radulifolium (Kunth) H. Rob. & Brettell (END)		Phytochemical characterization	Garduño-Ramírez et al. (2001)
	Robinsonecio gerberifolius (Sch. Bip.) T.M. Barkley & J.P. Janovec (NAT)		Phytochemical characterization	Arciniegas et al. (2003), Arciniegas et al. (2006b)
	Roldana angulifolia (DC.) H. Rob. & Brettell (NAT) (Senecio angulifolius DC., Senecio salignus DC.)	Dysentery, fever, rheumatism	Antibacterial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory phytochemical characterization	Hernández et al. (2003), Navarro García et al. (2003), Arciniegas et al. (2006a), Arciniegas et al. (2006b), Pérez-González et al. (2013)
	Roldana sessilifolia (Hook. & Am.) H. Rob. & Brettel (END) (Senecio cardiophyllus Hemsl, Senecio sessilifolius (H. et A.) Hemsley)	Fever, vaginal infections	Cytotoxicity, antibacterial, ejaculatory	Villarreal et al. (1994), Carro-Juárez et al. (2009), Rosas-Piñón et al. (2012)
	Senecio bracteatus Klatt (END)		Phytochemical characterization	Pérez-Castorena et al. (1999)
	Senecio helodes Benth. (END)		Phytochemical characterization	Pérez-Castorena et al.(1997)
	Senecio iodanthus Greenm. (END)		Phytochemical characterization	Pérez-Castorena et al. (1999)
	Senecio mairetianus DC. (NAT)		Phytochemical characterization	Perez-Castorena et al. (2006)
	Senecio roseus Sch. Bip. (END)		Phytochemical characterization	Pérez-Castorena et al. (1997)
TAGETEAE	Adenophyllum appendiculatum (Lag.) Strother (NAT) (Dyssodia appendiculata Lag.)		Antibacterial	Frei et al. (1998)
	Chrysactinia mexicana A. Gray (NAT)		Antiprotozoal, antibacterial, phytochemical characterization, anti-spasmodic, antidepressant, toxicity	Calzada et al. (2007), Molina-Salinas et al. (2007), Guevara Campos et al. (2011), Salazar-Aranda et al. (2011), Cassani et al. (2015), Zavala-Mendoza et al. (2016)
	Dyssodia papposa (Vent.) Hitchc (NAT)		Antimicrobial, cytotoxicity	Gutiérrez-Lugo et al. (1996)
	Gymnolaena oaxacana (Greenm.) Rydb (END)	Diarrhea	Antibacterial	Hernández et al. (2003)
	Pectis hankeana (DC.) Sch. Bip. (END)		Antibacterial, cytotoxicity	Murillo-Álvarez et al. (2001)
	Porophyllum linaria (Cav.) DC (END)	Anti-inflammatory.	Insecticidal, phytochemical characterization	Hernández-Cruz et al. (2019)
	Tagetes erecta L. (NAT)		Antibacterial, spasmolytic, sedative	Hernández et al. (2003), Pérez-Ortega et al. (2017), Piña-Vázquez et al. (2017), Ventura-Martínez (2018)
	Tagetes lucida Cav. (NAT)		Antimicrobial, antifungal, antidepressant, sedative, anxiolytic, analgesic, anti-inflammatory	Céspedes et al. (2006), Damián et al. (2008), Guadarrama Cruz et al. (2008), Guadarrama-Cruz et al. (2012), Rosas-Piñón et al. (2012), Bonilla-Jaime et al. (2015), Pérez-Ortega et al. (2016), González-Trujano et al. (2019), Monterrosas-Brisson et al. (2019)
	Tagetes micrantha Cav. (NAT)		Spasmolytic	Arroyo et al. (2004)
VERNONIEAE	Vernonia liatroides DC., Prodr. (END)		Phytochemical characterization, muscle relaxant	Campos et al. (2003)
	Vernonia oaxacana Sch. Bip. ex Klatt (NAT)		Antibacterial	Rocha-Gracia et al. (2011)
	Vernonanthura patens (Kunth) H. Rob. (NAT) Vernonia patens Kunth)		Cytotoxicity, antitumoral	Avelino-Flores et al. (2019)

Received: August 10, 2020; Accepted: December 23, 2020; Published: April 15, 2021

^*Author for correspondence: gabriela.cilia@uaslp.mx

Associate editor: Arturo de Nova Vásquez

Author contributions: VGCL designed the research, performed the database compilation, collected the data, and conducted analyses. RCC designed the research, performed the database compilation, and conducted analyses. LRZS performed the database compilation, collected the data, and conducted analyses. All authors have made substantial intellectual contributions during the data collection, and analyses. All authors have approved the final version to be published.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License