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Agricultura, sociedad y desarrollo
versión impresa ISSN 1870-5472
agric. soc. desarro vol.13 no.1 Texcoco ene./mar. 2016
Articles
Analysis of the amaranth value chain in México
1 Campo Experimental Valle de México, INIFAP, Km. 13.5 Carretera Los Reyes Texcoco, Coatlinchán, Texcoco estado de México, México. 56250. (ayala.alma@inifap.gob.mx) (espitia.eduardo@inifap.gob.mx) (rivas.patricia@inifap.gob.mx)
2 Departamento de Fitotecnia. Universidad Autónoma Chapingo. Km. 38.5 Carretera México Texcoco, Chapingo, México. 56230. (almaguervargas@hotmail.com)
The objective of this study was to perform an analysis of the amaranth value chain, taking into account the actors, relationships and functions, as well as the factors that affect its competitiveness. The technique of panels and field surveys was used. This was all carried out from October to November, 2013, with the participation of experts from the states of Puebla, Morelos, Oaxaca, Hidalgo, San Luis Potosí, Estado de México and Tlaxcala. It was found that there is little connection between research and the producers; there is a lack of policies that foster the integration and organization of the chain; there is limited commercial promotion in international markets; amaranth marketing is the weakest connection. The producers sell their product to the transformation industry, in stores and local supermarkets, and a high percentage of the sales of the processing industry are destined to addressing government programs. The structuring between the supply of inputs and the final market is not the most adequate. Power relations are hierarchal, few purchasing actors have power or information, and their relationship with suppliers is commercial. There are no horizontal connections at the level of producers, which does not allow improving the ability for negotiation and the organization.
Keywords: actors; value chain; relationships and connections
El objetivo de este estudio fue realizar un análisis de la cadena de valor del amaranto, considerando a los actores, sus relaciones y funciones, así como los factores que afectan su competitividad. Se utilizó la técnica de paneles y encuestas en campo. Todo esto se realizó de octubre a noviembre de 2013, con la participación de expertos de los estados de Puebla, Morelos, Oaxaca, Hidalgo, San Luis Potosí, Edo. de México y Tlaxcala. Se encontró que existe poca vinculación entre la investigación y los productores; faltan políticas que impulsen la integración de la cadena y la organización de la misma; existe una limitada promoción comercial en mercados internacionales; la comercialización del amaranto es el eslabón más vulnerable. Los productores venden su producción a la industria transformadora, en tiendas y en los supermercados locales, y un alto porcentaje de las ventas de la industria procesadora está destinada a atender programas de Gobierno. La estructuración entre la provisión de insumos y el mercado final no es la más adecuada. Las relaciones de poder son jerárquicas, pocos actores compradores tienen el poder, la información y su relación con sus proveedores es comercial. No existen vínculos horizontales a nivel de productores, lo cual no permite mejorar la capacidad de negociación y la organización.
Palabras clave: actores; cadena de valor; relaciones y vínculos
Introduction
Amaranth (Amaranthus spp) is a plant that is cultivated and used in México since more than 4000 years ago, with a great tradition because of its use in religious aspects, in the diet and for offerings in Pre-Hispanic cultures (Casas et al, 2001; Sauer, 1976). Its importance lies in its high nutritional value, both in the amount and in the quality of the protein, better than cereals of common use such as wheat (Triticum aestivum), rice (Oryza sativa), oats (Avena sativa) and maize (Zea mays) (Morales et al., 2009). According to Barba de la Rosa et al. (2009), amaranth produces seeds with high levels of total protein, as well as the amino acid lysine, generally deficient in other cereals (Belton and Taylor, 2002), so it can be placed in different important market niches.
FAO (1997) catalogues amaranth as a crop with the same amount of nutrients than soy. Barrales et al. (2010) mention that it is a promising crop that can be cultivated under rainfed conditions, with tolerance to drought and a higher or similar yield than other crops under the same conditions. This makes the crop an alternative for adequate production and consumption in marginalized regions of the country.
In recent years the surface sown and the volume of amaranth production in México showed mean annual growth rates (MAGR) of 8.17 and 15.34b% during the period of 1982 to 2010 (SIACON-SAGARPA, 2012).
The maximum surfaces cultivated were during the years 1997, 1999 and 2001, with areas of more than three thousand hectares. From 2004 to 2007, the surface stabilized at a level slightly above two thousand hectares; between 2008 and 2010 the surface reached more than three thousand hectares again, with an average of 3047. A similar situation occurred with production, where there were variable increases, with a jump starting in 1995 and a historical maximum in 2001, with the same tendency towards stabilization from 2004 to 2007 of three thousand tons and an average of 4075 tons. The percentage of participation of the value of amaranth production in the total agricultural production value grew at a mean annual rate of 8.17 % during the same period (SIACON- SAGARPA, 2012).
However, in México, amaranth does not occupy a place among the products that are considered basic and strategic (Article 70 of the Sustainable Rural Development Law1). Contrary to its importance as part of the identity of Pre-Hispanic cultures, of its origin and primarily of the option that it presents as an economic activity for peasant agriculture, and its nutritional characteristics, the amaranth value chain has great challenges to overcome from the viewpoint of competitiveness, particularly because the crop is developed in small communities under conditions of scarcity, not only of natural resources such as water, but also of technology in the production and transformation in regions where it is produced (De la O Olán et al., 2012), and because of the lack of financing to gain access to the technology available (Ayala et al., 2012).
In terms of marketing and sales, producers are not organized, which is one of the most vulnerable aspects of the chain, since 80 % of producers sell to intermediaries, who decide the price at the beginning of the harvest season and increase it or decrease it depending on the offer and demand (Ayala et al., 2014).
The large transformers carry out the whole process of grain industrialization, in order to elaborate a great diversity of products.
For these reasons, it can be concluded that the deficient integration of the amaranth value chain, including its marketing processes, the application of deficient cultural practices, the absence of economies of scale, the scarce organization for the sale of their products, in addition to the competition against crops that can be more easily mechanized and the low sale price of the product, have had an impact on producers’ small income, of $ 7075.56 per hectare (Ayala et al., 2014); it is necessary to analyze this chain more systematically in order to suggest alternatives that allow improving its competitiveness.
Therefore, the objective of this study was to develop an integral analysis of the amaranth value chain, considering the actors, their relationships and functions, as well as the factors that affect the chain’s competitiveness, in order to establish alternatives that allow helping to revert the limitations present to increase the producers’ income.
Value chain refers to the way in which a set of actors are related in function of a specific product, in order to add or increase its value throughout the different links, from the stage of production to the consumption, including commercialization, market and distribution (Acosta, 2006). Porter (1985) defines a value chain as the set of activities that an organization must develop in order to take a product from the producer to the consumer within a business system.
Value chains ease the creation of productive alliances, allowing the most efficient use of the resources; they highlight the role of distribution and marketing as key factors for a greater competitiveness, they ease the flow of information between actors, they help develop solutions in a joint manner with the identification of problems and bottlenecks throughout the chain, and lastly, they allow analyzing each link in the chain independently and jointly (Peña et al., 2008).
In a broader sense, a value chain refers to the commercial connections and flows of inputs, products, information, financial resources, logistics, marketing and other services between suppliers of inputs, processing plants, exporters, retailers, and other economic agents who participate in the supply of products and services to the final consumers. A value chain is understood as an alliance or strategic network between a number of independent organizations within a productive chain (CIAT, 2007).
The importance of the study of the amaranth value chain lies in the identification of limitations, both in the productive activity itself and in the interinstitutional strategies that intervene within the chain. Regarding these weaknesses, we suggest actions to be followed, to offer alternatives to the problems, which could generate efficiencies in the chain, and, ultimately, competitive advantages.
Methodology
Breakdown of growth factors in amaranth production in the national scope
To determine precisely the degree of influence that factors such as yield, an innovation indicator and the surface harvested have had, or a combined effect in the growth of production, the Venezian and Gamble equation (1969) was used, modified by Contreras (2000) and data from SIACON-SAGARPA (2012) were used:
where: Pt = Total increase of the production for the period analyzed; Y0 (At-A0 )=Quantifies the contribution of the surface; A0 (Yt -Y0 )=Quantifies the contribution of the yield; (At A0 )(Yt-Yo)= Quantifies the combined effect of surface and yield; A0 =Average surface harvested initial (1980=222.50 ha); At =Average surface harvested final (2010=3047.33 ha); Y0 =Average national yield initial (1980=0.41, in t ha-1); Yt =Average yield final (2010=1.34 t ha-1).
If the total increase in production for the 1982- 2010 period is equal to 100 %, it is possible to determine the proportion that corresponds to each factor, to evaluate if the yield has been intensive or extensive. The extensive growth consists in the increase in production through the increase of the surface harvested, situation that refers to technological obsolescence. The intensive growth relates to the increase in production via yield increase, fact that refers to a higher technological level. A combined growth refers to an increase in surface and yield equally (Zarazúa et al. 2009).
Work panels
The technique of panels was used to build the characteristics of the amaranth value chain. The panels were made up of groups of experts from the states of Estado de México, Puebla, Morelos, Oaxaca, Hidalgo, San Luis Potosí and Tlaxcala, to achieve the characterization of the production system, its technological level, and the scales within a range of productive capacity. People who know the chain participated in these panels. They were carried out during the month of October, 2013.
The first working session in the field consisted in training about the foundations, principles and concepts around the methodology of value chains, during which the participants defined the first guidelines with regard to the analysis of the chain and the factors that define competitiveness.
Using a process of consensus building, in each panel a dialogue was established with the experts, with the aim of collecting information related from the production, as well as the technical parameters and commercialization systems for one base year. Therefore, the information was agreed upon under consensus of the panelists. Later, feedback was received and strategies and recommendations were developed. It took place during November, 2013, the attendees were representatives from the value chain in several states, such as input suppliers, producers’ representatives from different zones, two of the main transformers in the amaranth industry, representatives from SAGARPA, INIFAP, and non-governmental organizations.
Once the information was captured and processed, and with the aim of ensuring the validity and representativeness of the data obtained, the results were validated by the panelists.
The validation was performed through a consensus process, where the participants from the original panel were called again. In this stage, the results were presented with the intention of verifying whether the information was complete and correct, in addition to verifying if this information reflected the situation of the value chain. Likewise, it was verified that the panelists agreed in that the prospective analysis adequately reflected their expectations regarding the sector’s trends. The validation process is an indispensable requirement for publishing and divulging results (Zavala-Pineda et al., 2012).
The amaranth value chain was modelled with the information given by the group of experts participating in two panels.
Field surveys
Seventeen surveys were carried out with key informants in the chain, which are part of the production system or else of the Producers’ Council in the states of Estado de México (3), Puebla (3), Morelos (3), Oaxaca (3), Hidalgo (1), San Luis Potosí (3) and Tlaxcala (1). At the level of industrialists and markets, five surveys were performed: San Luis Potosí (3), Hidalgo (1) and Tlaxcala (1).
The surveys were made up of qualitative questions that were transformed using a scale of 1 to 5 for qualitative analysis. The questions asked were with the aim of generating the variables described next.
Conceptual map of the amaranth value chain
In order to obtain a map of the value chain, the following levels were analyzed:
Actors and functions. The agents and functions that each carry out were identified, through the questions asked and the search for information in the Amaranth Product System.
Relationships and horizontal connections. The interactions between agents or actors were described, as well as their level of organization.
Primary information from the national market. Important information from the national consumption market was analyzed, and about the attributes of the products offered.
Critical support services. Information related to financial services was gathered, related to access to credit.
Technical support services. Information related to the service of technical support for producers was presented.
Quality management services. Instruments of a regulatory nature were sought, for the transformation of products.
Commercial intelligence. An analysis was carried out with the purpose of understanding the culture of consumption, quality of amaranth and its properties.
Logistics and storage. It was sought to identify the actors that participate in this area.
Results and Discussion
Decomposition of growth factors of amaranth production in the national scope
The growth of amaranth production is determined by the combination of the increase in surface and the yield in 66.12 % (Table 1); that is, this growth has occurred because of the interaction between both factors, not only because of the increase in surface or yield, but rather from a combination of both.
Table 1 Participation of factors in the increase of amaranth production.
![](/img/revistas/asd/v13n1//1870-5472-asd-13-01-00087-gt1.gif)
Source: authors’ elaboration with data from SAGARPA-SIACON, 2012.
On the other hand, the increase in yield per hectare between 1982 and 2010 increased at a mean annual growth rate (MAGR) of 4.36 %, while that of production at 15.34 %.
With regard to the increase in productivity, its growth is in function of the adoption of technological innovations, which are recommended according to the characteristics of the production zones (Estrada et al., 2006). However, the adoption of these technological packages has been almost non-existent. According to Muñoz et al. (2007), multiple factors intervene in the adoption of technologies, but one of the most important ones is the participation of a trained extension agent, who is knowledgeable about innovation networks, and this situation is practically unfulfilled.
Map of the value chain
The map of the amaranth value chain (Figure 1) was generated to show the actors, their functions, support services and relationships in the flow of the product from its production to the final market.
Actors and functions. The flow of the chain begins with the agroindustry that supplies inputs, mainly for primary production; it continues with the stockpiling of production; then, grain transformation, and concludes with the sale (wholesale and retail). To the left of the image the main functions in the product flow are represented, from their elaboration to the final market.
Minor producers (less than 10 ha) fulfill several functions in the chain and, therefore, are represented with a rectangle that covers the production of raw material, the stockpiling and the artisanal processing of products made with amaranth (Figure 1). The differentiation based on the size of producers happens because those with less than 10 ha sell their production to local collectors, who in turn sell their production to local artisanal processers. These, in turn, sell their production wholesale to the central market, or retail in small stores, local supermarkets, health food stores, and in some cases to the industry. According to comments by panelists, producers who own more than 10 ha normally sell their production to the large transforming industry.
Horizontal relationships and connections. Figure 1 shows the different relationships and flows. For example, in the flow of input suppliers to the market, there is no diversity between the supply of inputs and the final market; nevertheless, there are informal traders to whom suppliers sell their products and do not add any value to the chain, since they are only dealers.
The power relations in the chain are hierarchical; few buyers who have the power, the information, leaving the relationship with their suppliers at a commercial level, except in the case of Empresa San Miguel, which according to key producers surveyed have a serious social commitment; it is an example of responsibility, and its equitable involvement with members has determined that a whole town improves its quality of life around this processing company.
It is important to highlight that several of the leaderships recognized within the amaranth chain in México have the vision of being able to develop it under guidelines of Solidary Economy, taking advantage of the window of opportunity that there is in face of the absence of a preponderant corporate actor that would impose the commercial logic, according to several actors interviewed.
Horizontal connections. Based on the information analyzed from the surveys and panels, there are no relevant examples in terms of horizontal connections at the level of producers. A culture of association among producers, which would allow them to improve their capacity for negotiation and to modify the power relations, could not be identified in this study.
At the level of industrialists, horizontal connections have been developed to elaborate the Mexican quality regulations for the grain and popping of amaranth. On the other hand, the actors have a representation of horizontal connections in a planning board for the Product System in the states of Morelos, Tlaxcala, Mexico City and San Luis de Potosí. Oaxaca is not recognized as Product System, but does participate in the dialogue table at the national level; Puebla does not participate and we pretend for this initiative to have a reach for the National Product System in the future, to define the strategic reagent plan for the amaranth chain.
Of the actors surveyed in the chain and the panelists, 59 % mentioned that there is a low to very low participation of the members in the value chain for decision-making, which is a limiting factor because the level of participation is also linked to the willingness to invest to improve the chain.
It is interesting that 76 % of the people surveyed mentioned that there is a low to very low level of cooperation between actors, and the main reasons for the lack of cooperation appear in the following figure. Likewise, in terms of the degree of association of producers, 77 % mentioned that they do not belong formally to any type of association. This limits the power relations, especially with regard to the volume and the producers’ ability to negotiate, and is an important limiting factor in the chain (Figure 2).
Primary information from the national market. Because of the type of process in México, 79.9 % of the products are based on popped grain, 17.2 % based on flour, and 2.9 % based on extruded (Espitia et al., 2012).
Escalante (2011) mentions that the “popped grain” refers to the seed that is placed on clay or metal pans that are heated up with firewood or gas so that it becomes inflated; once popped, the expanded grain is left to cool, then it is sifted to separate the grain that did not expand, it is poured into bags to be stored, and it is sold as cereal or used as input for other products.
In México, 58.9 % of the products are consumed as alegrías (traditional sweets), made with honey, sugar or molasses, and other ingredients. Among the products of greater acceptance in the market, there are simple palanquetas (24.3 %), wafers (7.9 %), covered (6.3 %), and other products (Espitia et al., 2012).
According to comments from panelists, the greatest risk in the chain is on the side of producers, since the production depends on the weather conditions, since the rains at the time of the harvest can make them lose the production; however, the profitability is increased as you move forward in the chain’s links.
At the level of market, the team of interviewers quantified that 65 % of the people who purchase are the ones who consume. Consumers mentioned that the main uses of the amaranth-based products are powder to mix with water, food supplements, granola, or for direct consumption. The main products consumed are alegrías, palanquetas, granolas, cereals, popped grains, and wafers. The consumers declared that the attributes of the products that determine their purchasing decision are the nutritional level, the flavor, price and presentation, according to the percentages that are shown in the table. This information is important to guide the communication efforts to generate a culture of consumption of the products (Figure 3).
Critical support services. The primary information gathered showed some services that are critical in the amaranth value chain. Next, the results from the surveys are presented.
Financial services. In the working sessions and in the surveys applied, financing was mentioned as a limiting factor to improve technology or working capital. Of those surveyed, 65 % mentioned they have low to very low access to credit. On the other hand, there are a series of entities that offer credit to agricultural producers, which are shown in Figure 4. However, apparently since amaranth is not declared as a strategic crop, other crops are the priority for financing; 47 % mentioned that either they are not candidates for credit, or the capital cost is too high.
Technical assistance services. The difficulty in access to technical assistance is also a limiting factor that is generally mentioned, both in the working sessions and in the surveys. 94 % of the producers indicated that although there are entities that offer technical assistance at the rural level, they do not have access to quality assistance, because the technical assistance available is focused on other crops declared as priority (Figure 5).
Quality management services. Differences in the quality and innocuousness of many of the amaranth- based products were identified, particularly in those produced at the artisanal level, which is something that requires regulation. According to Escobedo et al. (2012), in a sample made of amaranth-based products, 65 % complied with standards of excellence in quality such as those established in the applicable Mexican norms [NMX-114-SCFI-2009. Amaranth grain. Specificities of quality and assay methods; and PROY NMX-116-SCFI-2010. Popped amaranth grain (Amaranthus spp.) for human use and consumption].
According to the results from the surveys and working sessions, 47 % of the actors state that there is a high to very high compliance to the quality standards, and 41 % of people mentioned that there are high incentives to improve the quality in the chain. 82 % of the producers indicate they do not have the infrastructure to improve the quality. A low percentage indicated they have the equipment for threshing, the gathering center and appropriate logistics to ensure an adequate quality management.
Commercial intelligence. The purpose of participants in the working sessions with regard to the market in common was to generate a consumption culture of amaranth quality, and to connect consumption to the nutritional properties and of cultural identity. However, a deficiency identified in the amaranth chain is the knowledge about the final consumer’s profile, and about marketing management. This analysis needs to be complemented with market and marketing research that allows identifying segments, potential channels, and based on this information, finding the adequate strategy to communicate and position in the mind of consumers the appropriate marketing message.
Logistics and storage. Regarding the services of logistics and storage, no actors were identified who offer these services, according to the surveys and meetings that took place.
Discussion
In this study it is recognized that the value chain is a management tool that allows performing an internal analysis through the disaggregation into its main activities, which generate value in amaranth.
The limitations that stand out most in the amaranth value chain are the scarce or non-existent connection between research and the needs of the producers. From research institutions, there is a lack of budget to carry out basic and applied research. However, according to Santacruz (2011), various state governments have offered supports, in discourse, for the promotion of amaranth production, although their offerings have not been fulfilled and the producers consider that, if those supports had existed, the surface sown could be expanded to up to 25 thousand hectares.
The marketing link is not regulated, there is a lack of policies that foster the chain’s integration and organization; derived from this, there is limited commercial promotion in international markets of the products derived from amaranth, so their marketing should be promoted, since according to Ayala et al. (2014), this link is one of the weakest in the chain.
Within the strategic opportunities for the industry, Cortés et al. (2009) mention that amaranth consumption should be fostered, taking advantage of identity as a part of the Mexican and alternative culture, to generate a consumption culture of quality amaranth-based products, and to create the incentives through a product system at the national level; according to Ayala et al. (2012), there are also countless benefits documented for its integral exploitation, since it is a versatile grain for transformation and industrialization. Generating a guiding strategic plan for the whole chain is important, to give it representativeness, to carry out the negotiations before the government in order to achieve for amaranth to be declared a strategic product, and to generate the incentives among members and to prioritize the next steps in the mid and long term to revert the limitations in opportunities.
Derived from the analysis of the panels and as a result from the surveys with key agents, the following strategies can be mentioned:
Productivity. The real and potential impacts at the level of amaranth production will take place as a result of the adoption of technologies that allow improving profitability (Muñoz et al., 2007), such as access to new varieties of improved seed; adequate technical management of the crop in terms of density, nutrition, health; and, particularly, technologies in production, such as irrigation where there is water availability.
Generating a culture of consumption. A well-planned strategy is required, set out in the strategic guiding plan for the whole chain, which should include campaigns for client education, to persuade potential consumers of the nutritional value, amaranth identity, and new marketing practices.
National environment for business. Reforms or new public policies, regulations, norms, to eliminate the obstacles to the increase in the industry’s competitiveness must take place. For example, incentives to improve the outfitting to improve quality; a change in the regulations for norms for product registry from each state; declaring amaranth as a strategic product; promotion and public campaigns against malnutrition and hunger. Agricultural subsidies, especially access to production factors.
Improving relationships. Defining a logical route for the next steps and periodical meetings of the product system. Favoring the improvement of vertical or horizontal connections that allow a greater efficiency (the creation of economies of scale, reducing transaction costs, etc.). In the interviews, participants mentioned an initiative to declare a national amaranth’s day.
Information flow. The information flow must be improved, or of services to improve the quality of products and to reduce costs.
Conclusions
There is a scarce or non-existent connection between researchers and producers.
Producers with more than 10 hectares normally sell their production to the transforming industry, wholesale in stores and in local supermarkets, as well as retail; however, a good percentage of the sales by the processing industry is destined to serving government programs, since the latter is the main motor of the chain.
The structuring between input provision and the final market is not the most adequate; nevertheless, there are informal traders who sell the suppliers their products and who do not add value to the chain, they are only dealers.
The power relations in the chain are hierarchical; few purchasing actors have the power, the information, and their relationship with their providers is basically commercial.
The marketing link is not regulated, and there is a lack of policies to foster the chain’s integration and organization. Therefore, there is limited commercial promotion in the national and international markets.
It is important to highlight that several of the leaderships recognized within the amaranth chain in México have the vision of being able to consolidate the amaranth chain under guidelines of solidary economy.
There are no horizontal links at the level of producers, which impedes improving the ability to negotiate, to organize, and to modify the relations of power.
The participants mentioned an alternative to address the risk that the producer takes, through agricultural insurance, which could be proposed by the National Product System to SAGARPA or the competent authorities.
There is low to very low participation of the members of the value chain for decision-making.
There is difficulty for financing as a limitation to improve technology or working capital. The difficulty in access to technical assistance is also a limiting factor, which in general is mentioned both in the working sessions and in the surveys.
Regarding the services of logistics and storage, no actors were identified who offer these services, according to the surveys and the meetings that were held.
Aknowledgements
This study was financed by Puente a la Salud Comunitaria, located at Magnolias #109, Col. Reforma C.P. 68050 Oaxaca, Oax, México, pete.noll@gmail.com; we thank their support, especially Pete Noll’s.
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Received: November 2014; Accepted: December 2015