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Educación química
versión impresa ISSN 0187-893X
Educ. quím vol.24 no.2 Ciudad de México abr. 2013
Emergent topics on chemistry education [chemistry education and sustainability]
Science, Technology, Environment, Society (STES) Literacy for Sustainability: What Should it Take in Chem/Science Education?
Alfabetización Ciencia, Tecnología, Ambiente y Sociedad CTAS para la sustentabilidad: ¿Qué deberíamos tomar para la educación en ciencias/química?
Uri Zoller*
* Faculty of Natural Sciences, Haifa UniversityOranim, Kiryat Tivon 36006, Israel. Email: uriz@research.haifa.ac.il
Abstract
Ensuring sustainability requires a paradigm shift in conceptualization, thinking, research and Science education, particularly concerning the sciencetechnologyenvironmentsociety (STES) interfaces. Consequently, STES literacy requires the development of students' capabilities via higherorder cognitive skills (HOCS)promoting teaching, assessment and learning strategies. Striving for sustainability and the consequent paradigms shift, from unlimited growth to sustainable development, makes the corresponding paradigms shift in science, environmental and technology engineering education, from algorithmic teaching to HOCS learning, to become unavoidable. The identified paradigms shift reflect the everincreasing social pressure towards more accountable, socially and environmentallyresponsible sustainable action. Concomitantly, this pressure constitutes the driving force for STES education for sustainability. This requires HOCS for responsibly dealing with multidimensional, socioeconomicaltechnologicalenvironmental systems. Our research findings and educational practice suggest, that, although the road to STES literacy for sustainability is rocky, it is educationally feasible and, therefore, attainable.
Keywords: ScienceTechnologyEnvironmentSociety (STES), education/literacy, HigherOrder Cognitive Skills (HOCS), sustainability.
Resumen
La garantía de la sustentabilidad requiere un cambio de paradigma en la conceptualización, pensamiento, investigación de la educación científica, de forma particular lo que se refiere a las fronteras de cienciatecnologíaambientesociedad (CTAS, en inglés STES). Consecuentemente, la alfabetización CTAS requiere que los estudiantes desarrollen capacidades cognitivas de alto orden (HOCS en inglés) gracias a una enseñanza, evaluación y aprendizaje que las promueva. Esforzarse hacia la sustentabilidad hace que el paradigma cambie del crecimiento no limitado al desarrollo sustentable y hace que los paradigmas correspondientes en educación en ciencia, ambiental e ingeniería se desplacen inevitablemente de la enseñanza algorítmica al aprendizaje de habilidades cognitivas de alto orden. El cambio de paradigma es un reflejo de la presión social hacia una acción sustentable más social y ambientalmente responsable. Concomitantemente, esta presión constituye la fuerza directora de la educación CTAS para la sustentabilidad. Ello requiere el aprendizaje de habilidades cognitivas de alto orden para vérselas con sistemas multidimensionales, de carácter socioeconómicotecnológico. Nuestros hallazgos de investigación y nuestra práctica educativa nos sugieren que, aunque el camino hacia la alfabetización CTAS es rocoso, resulta factible y, por lo tanto, alcanzable.
Palabras clave: CienciaTecnologíaAmbienteSociedad (CTAS), educación/alfabetización, habilidades cognitivas de alto orden, sustentabilidad.
THE CUIDING RATIONALE AND PURPOSE
All sciences, particularly the environmental sciences, engineering and technology, are emerging as new multidimensional, cross, inter and transdisciplinary disciplines (Mihelcic, et al., 2003). They draw on all the basic sciences to explain the workings of the complex and dynamic ever changing earth and peoplegenerated systems as a result of natural causes and anthropogenic impact (Glaze, 2002). Thus, the sciences, technology and engineering are undergoing a process of distancing themselves from specialized, compartmentalized, subdisciplinary, undimensional enterprises focusing, instead, upon multidimensional, crossboundary endeavors in the context of the sciencetechnologyenvironmentsociety (STES) interfaces (Zoller, 2000ab, 2001; Gibbons et al., 2001). This process poses new challenges with respect to science, technology, engineering and the related STES literacies, as well as to organizations, societies, economies and (what goes without saying) politics. Inevitably, the consequenting paradigms shift in science Chemistry, biology, physics, geography,... STES, STEM, engineering, environmental Education follow suit. From the perspective of sustainability, any relevant generated or acquired knowledge that is put into action in the STES context, should be guided by the idea[l]s of social responsibility (Zoller, 2012). Although sustainability is associated with a plethora of different meanings dependent on the specific STES context (Marshal & Toffel, 2005; Zoller, 2012), it ultimately requires that all involved parties operate within an openended, ideasoriented culture (Negroponte, 2003), characterized by an ongoing inquiry (Laws et al., 2004). This, in turn, requires a corresponding new type of STES education targeted, purposely, to an agreed upon STES oriented literacy (Zoller, 2012).
The objective of this STES literacy for sustainability pedagogy, is to promote, in science, technology and environmental education, the development/enhancement of evaluative critical system thinking, decision making, problem solving and transfer (Barak et al., 2007; BenZvi, Assaraf & Orion, 2005; Kurtam, 2013; Levy Nahum et al., 2010; Zoller, 1993, 1999, 2001, 2005, 2012; Zoller & Levy Nahum, 2012). Such learning objectives are, therefore, distinct from traditional basic learning, in which the emphasis is on knowledge gain rather than the development of the students' transferable Higherorder cognitive skills (HOCS) capabilities (Zoller, 2012).
Our 'global village"free market", peoplemade world' requires a new type of flexible, contextually relevant, adaptive knowledge, that permits one to cope with the complexity and fragility of multidimensional global socioeconomictechnologicalenvironmental systems (Gibbons et al., 1994; Zoller, 1993). This need has served as an impetus for the emergence of both inter and transdisciplinarity in environmental, natural/physical science research and in science, technology chemistry and STES education (Gibbons et al., 2001; Scholz, 2000; Thompson et al., 2001; Zoller, 2001, 2012; Zoller & Scholz, 2004), as well as for adequate strategies of technology assessment and sustainable action (Laws et al., 2004).
There is an everincreasing gap between the reality of the 21st society, which is based on science, technology, economy, and advanced, sophisticated networked systems and capabilities and the response of the diverse, multisectorial educational systems, worldwide, to this reality. The latter are perceived by students, teachers, parents, society, economical, political and ...educational systems, as an instructional framework, the objective of which is to advance pupils/students up the classes' ladder, based on their high scored passing of disciplinary, mainly algorithmic, knowledgecentered exams and/or "standardized" tests. Thus, pupils'/students' learning is assessed and ranked according to their "grade achievement" and/or scores on related examinations as the exclusive criteria.
Given the current striving for sustainability and the corresponding paradigms shift in science, technology, R&D, environment perception, economy and policies; e.g., from unlimited growthtosustainable development, correctiontoprevention and passive, unlimited consumption of "goods", culture and education to active participation and involvement, primarily in STES, economypolicy (STESEP) contexts, the corresponding paradigms shift, at all levels of education is unavoidable (Zoller, 1990, 1993, 1999, 2000a, 2011a). This requires a shift in conceptualization, thinking, research and practice in science/STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics) education, particularly in the context of the STESEP interfaces, HOCSpromoting teaching, assessment and learning strategies (Zoller, 2000b, 2001, 2005, 2011b, 2012; Zoller & Scholz, 2004). This means a shift, in the diverse multisectorial and cultural global societies, from the currently dominating lowerorder cognitive skills (LOCS) algorithmic teaching to know, to HOCSpromoting learning to think, for transfer (Zoller, 1990, 1993, 1999, 2000a,b).
Consistent with, and building upon, these visionary trends, the development of HOCS has been persistently invoked, purposing at the substitution of the conventional algorithmic teaching of science and technology (Zoller, 1999, 2001; Zoller & Pushkin, 2007; Zoller & Tsaparlis, 1997). Thus, the "battle cry" for sustainable development, worldwide, turned the latter into a major driving force in the rethinking and redesigning processes of STESoriented science, technology, environmental education and environmental engineering courses, teaching strategies, assessment methodologies, learning styles and programs (Zoller, 2012; Zoller & Levy Nahum, 2012; Zoller & Scholz, 2004).
This means that the "translation" of science and technology to socially and technologically responsible action is contingent on the "HOCS capability" of those involved and, in turn, should be shaped by responsive and relevant applied science education (Zoller, 1993, 1999, 2001; Zoller & Scholz, 2004).
Science and technology are useful in establishing what we can do, as well as in providing us with the ability to generate new options. However, neither singly nor in combination can they tell us what we should do. What 'should be done' requires the application of evaluative thinking and value judgment by socially responsible, reflective, and active participants, in relevant societal discourses (Zoller, 1999, 2001; Glaze, 2002; Schnoor, 2003). Therefore, the preparation of students for reasoned, intelligent, defensible, and responsible active participation in the mutual learning occurring amongst all parties involved in the democratic decisionmaking process, which is based on their HOCS thinking capability an overarching goal of sound education at all levels (Zoller, 1993, 1999, 2001, 2005, 2012).
In the context of STES literacy for sustainability, this would require (a) identification/categorization of the contemporary paradigms shift in STESrelated science and technology research and education for sustainability; (b) integration of the 'environment' into science and technology education, by making it a core pillar of the STES approach (Yager, 1993; Zoller 2005). By doing so, the STES conceptual framework (Zoller, 1993, 1999, 2001, 2012) will become better geared for perpetuating sustainability in the STES context; and (c) promotion of a shift from 'increasing knowledge capacity' per se, to 'enhancing thinking capability' via in accord educational reform. This should be the basis for sustainabilityoriented action in the STESinterfaces context (Zoller & Levy Nahum, 2012; Zoller, 2012).
Undoubtedly, the promotion of STESfocused education for sustainability in science education, at all levels, raises the issue of education versus indoctrination. In this context, science teachers' job is not to tell the students what to think, but rather to develop their own thinking (Qablan et al., 2011). Significantly, in a research related to the educationindoctrination issue, conducted in BC Canada, it was found that the students' beliefs and views post an sts curriculum, were different from those of their teachers, meaning education not indoctrination (Zoller et al., 1991a). The need for "STES teachers" who strive to understand what science means to students in their world/context", is apparent (Kamen, 2011).
THE STES RELATED CONCEPTUAL MODEL
Our conceptual framework is presented in Figure 1. The main domains of STES and their (inter) relationships form the core of the framework into which the related multidimensional educational domain is inserted. Other pertinent domains (not shown for simplicity) are operating within this framework.
Figure 1 represents a simplified, qualitative systemic conceptualization of the so far dealtwith, the interfacing four STES components. It conveys the integration of the environment as a core pillar in the sciencetechnologysociety (STS) approach (Yager, 1993) in science education and expanding it into STESrelated educational frameworks, which are indispensable in the promotion of sustainability (Zoller, 1993, 1999, 2001; Robért & Anderson, 2002). Yet, the relative importance of the components in different contexts should, a priori, be considered as differing quantitatively and qualitatively, what is to be expected in sustainabilityoriented research and education in the STES context.
Given the current striving for sustainability and the consequent paradigms shift, such as from unlimited growth to sustainable development, correction to prevention and from options selections to options generation, the corresponding paradigms shift in science and technology education, such as from algorithmic teaching to HOCS promoting learning, is unavoidable.
Such a shift from the traditional locs science teaching to 'HOCS learning', is to be encouraged by science educators, national education policy makers, curriculum developers, teachers, STES/stem educators and the public at large. The above reflects the worldwide everincreasing social pressure towards more accountable socially, environmentally, economically and politically responsible science, environmental and engineering education, essential for ensuring sustainable development (Zoller, 1993, 1999, 2000a, 2001, 2011b). Furthermore, science/STEM/STES educators, researchers, economists, cognitive psychologists and sociologists consider HOCS (Figure 2) to be important domains for students' learning, for ensuring their capability to exercise a responsible citizenry in the context of Literacy for sustainable development (Table 1) (Zoller & Scholz, 2004).
This is of particular importance in the context of the on going "battle cry" for sustainability and, in accord, responsibility of the 21st science and chemical education at large in our diverse global community.
HOCS are conceptualized as a nonalgorithmic complex multicomponent conceptual framework of reflective, critical, system and evaluative thinking, focusing on deciding what to believe and do, or not to do, in confronting (with) an issue or a problem to be solved, to be followed by a responsible action, accordingly (Zoller, 1990). Thus, e.g., the HOCS, critical thinking (CT), question asking (QA), decision making (DM) and problem solving (PS), constitute major components in the HOCS conceptual model (Figure 2) (Zoller & Levy Nahum, 2012; Zoller, 2012). This model refers to the interrelated generic non content, but contextually bound cognitive capabilities there contained. Thus, the development of the learners' HOCS is being the leading goal embedded in this conceptual model.
Table 1 summarizes the essence of the paradigms shift directions in environmental/STES research and education for sustainability within the framework conceptualized in Figure 1.
It is based on (a) previous disciplinary and interdisciplinary fundamental, theoretical and applied empirical research (Zoller & Levy Nahum, 2012; Zoller, 2012); (b) developed methodologies relevant to these various forms of research (e.g., Scholz & Tietje, 2002; (c) environmental and STESrelated research in science and chemical education (e.g., Zoller, 1993, 1999, 2001; Zoller & Pushkin, 2007; Zoller, 2012; Leou et al., 2006); (d) outcomes and conclusions of national and international conferences, symposia and workshops concerning environmental issues, problems, education, and policy (Zoller, 2004a); and (e) the development and implementation of largescale interdisciplinary, STEStype curriculum projects (see e.g., Levy Nahum et al., 2010, Tal et al., 2001; Zoller & Rochell, 1991b; Zoller & Scholz, 2004).
The above identified paradigms shift (Table 1) reflects the worldwide phenomenon of everincreasing social pressure towards more accountable, socially and environmentallyresponsible sustainable development. Concomitantly, this pressure constitutes a driving force for, and a consequence of, the paradigms shift in the STES education for sustainability context. Understandably, all of the above requires new types of flexible, contextuallybound relevant, adaptive knowledge and, even more so, HOCS capabilities of critical evaluative system thinking, decision making and creative thinking for problem solving for effectively and responsibly dealing/coping with the complexity and fragility of multidimensional economical, technological, environmental social and political systems [STESEP]. This implies the importance of consonant interdisciplinary methodologies, strategies, assessment and sustainable action and, in accord, "HOCS learning" in STESoriented science and technology/STES/STEM education. In conceptualizing the essence of the current reform in science/technology education, worldwide, as a purposed effort to develop all students' STES literacy, the implementation of appropriate research/evidencebased, HOCSpromoting teaching, assessment and learning strategies is proposed as the educational methodology of choice for effective science and technology teaching and learning, targeting at STES literacy for sustainability (Zoller, 2012).
Selected researchbased illustrative 'exemplaries' of "how to do it", i.e., promoting/developing of critical thinking, decision making and problem solving (in contrast to 'exercise' solving), in different contexts, at different levels, follow.
PURPOSELY TEACHING FOR ADVANCIG STUDENTS' HOCS
The case of critical thinking
This longitudinal case study (Barak, BenChaim & Zoller, 2007), aimed at examining whether purposely teaching aimed at the promotion of HOCS, enhances science students' critical thinking (CT), conceptualized by us as resultsoriented rational, logical and reflective evaluative thinking , in terms of what to accept (or reject) and what to believe in, followed by a decision what to do (or not to do); then, to act accordingly and, concurrently, taking responsibility of both the decisions made and their consequences (Zoller, 1993, 1999). Within a pre, post, and postpost experimental design, high school students were divided into three research groups. The experimental group (N = 57) consisted of science students who were exposed to HOCSpromoting teaching. Two other groups, science (N = 41) and nonscience majors (N = 79), were traditionally taught, thus constituted the control. By using critical thinking assessment instruments (Facione, 1990; Facione & Facione, 1992), we have found that the experimental group showed a statistically significant improvement on critical thinking skills components and disposition towards CT subscales, such as: truthseeking, openmindedness, selfconfidence, and maturity, compared to the control groups. Our findings suggest, that if teachers purposely and persistently practice HOCSpromoting teaching' e.g., dealing in class with realworld problems, encouraging openended class discussions, and fostering inquiryoriented experiments, there is a good chance for a consequent development of CT capabilities.
HOCSPROMOTING ASSESSMENT
1. The HOCS Evaluation Questionnaire (heq) (Zoller & Scholz, 2004; Levy Nahum et al., 2010)
Assessing Question Asking:
1.1 Read the following paragraph. Formulate three questions that you would like to, or think, are important to ask concerning the subjects dealt with in the paragraph.
"Resources and energy: What are the future options and alternatives?
Almost every aspect of the Western world is based on the consumption of energy and products derived from thefinite crude oil and natural gas resources. There are sufficient reserves of coal that could lead to the production of enough synthetic fuel and gas for the present time. However, energy alternatives (e.g., solar, wind, tide, and waves) should be developed to satisfy the need for the production of electricity. This would involve the substitution of diminishing resources by available nonfinite resources. Nuclear energy is another possibility. Future alternatives concerning resource exploitation and energy supply require an indepth analysis and intelligent decision ...and the sooner the better."
1.2 Assessing decision making:
1. In your estimation, is the subject dealt with in the paragraph relevant to you? Explain your answer.
2. Can you, based on the given paragraph (and the information it provides), decide on the desirable alternatives of energy supply in your country? Explain your answer.
3. In case you think that you need more information in order to decide intelligently on the desirable alternative, formulate two questions that you would ask for answers before making the decision.
4. Formulate two criteria that guides you (or will guide you) in your decision concerning the most desirable alternative.
5. Briefly explain the pros and cons of the alternative(s) that you have chosen with regard to future implications. Compare your alternative(s) with any other alternatives that you did not choose.
6. In your estimation, are (1) societal and/or (2) values and/or (3) political (distinguished from the scientifictechnologicalenvironmental considerations) involved in your decision/choice of the desirable alternative? Relate to 1, 2 & 3 in your answer and explain!
Our main researchbased conclusion is related to the promotion/development of question asking (QA) and decision making (DM) HOCS in the STES context is, that both require a longitudinal, persistent HOCSoriented "STES"(oriented) teaching education, the latter longer than the former (Leou et al., 2006; Levi Nahum et al., 2010).
2. College Students' Problem Solving Capability in the Context of Chemistry Teaching
This research focused on 'problems' that require HOCS for their solution, in contrast to 'exercises' that require just the application of algorithms and/or lowerorder cognitive skills (LOCS), [to end up with only one "correct" answer]. We have studied science majors freshmen's (N = 47) prepost problem solving capabilities within 'traditional' college chemistry teaching which occasionally integrated environmentrelated, interdisciplinary problems. Our findings indicated, that although most students felt that it is within their capability to solve HOCSlevel questions (problems!), 'traditional' chemistry teaching does not contribute much to the enhancement of their problem solving capability. However, students who performed well on the HOCStype questions were found to: (a) successfully made connections between chemistryrelated concepts and STESoriented issues; (b) expressed their ideas using multiple representations: textually, qualitatively and quantitatively; (c) presented systemic reasoning, where applicable; and (d) evaluated and presented several alternative resolutions. These findings imply that a LOCStoHOCS shift from exercise, to problem solving capability, in science chemistry education, would require a shift from algorithmicto HOCSpromoting teaching and assessment.
For an example of a mixed HOCS/locs chemistry exam questions for university freshmen see Box 1.
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
'HOCSlearning' targeted at the development and enhancement of STES literacy for sustainability requires, neither the coverage of more advanced, domainspecific material, nor "increasing" students' repertoire of disciplinarybound algorithms. Rather, education for sustainability should take, among others, the following practice:
1. "Translating" the new goals, agreed upon by all parties involved stakeholders, policy makers and, mainly, STES, Science, Environmental and STEM educators into effective systemic sustainabilityoriented educational programs, curricula, courses, teaching, learning and assessment strategies (Zoller, 1993, 1999, 2001, 2004, 2011a, 2011b, 2012; Zoller & Scholz, 2004).
2. Ensuring that such system and sustainabilityoriented educational courses and curricula become an integral part of the curricula of formal science, technology and engineering education, which will ensure their recognized (respectable) status, in science and chemical education.
3. Developing and implementing HOCSpromoting assessment strategies as alternatives to the currently dominant (LOCSoriented) assessment practice in traditional, disciplinary science, technology, the environmental education (Zoller, 1993, 1994, 1999, 2012; Zoller & Scholz, 2004).
The challenge of STES literacy for sustainability will require:
1. The restructuring of education at all levels (including teacher professional development programs) towards this new type of learning, for all students, via the implementation of effective researchbased HOCSpromoting teaching, assessment and learning strategies (Zoller, 1993, 1999; 2011b; Zoller & Levi Nahum, 2011). 2. The teaching of how to systemically deal with complex, large systems using the case study methodology (e.g., large scale case studies (Scholz & Tietje, 2002), visàvis ensuring the students' Learning conceptalisation of fundamental trasdisciplinary concepts (Levi Nahum et al., 2010; Zoller & Levy Nahum, 2012).
3. Extending interdisciplinary studies, research and "SITES" teaching, in such a way, so that both students and relevant community "stakeholders" will become capable STESliterate active participants.
4. Developing and promoting effective, easily accessible communication and interaction among participants of studies in the STES domains. This is necessary for building a new type of culture that enables a collaborative societal process of sustainability assurance, thinkingbased learning.
Our accompanying longitudinal research application of this educational practice suggest that, although the road to STES literacy for sustainability is rocky, it is nevertheless, educationally feasible.
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