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Estudios fronterizos
versão On-line ISSN 2395-9134versão impressa ISSN 0187-6961
Estud. front vol.20 Mexicali 2019 Epub 11-Dez-2019
https://doi.org/10.21670/ref.1909030
Articles
Flexibilization of the input-output model to determine productive interdependencies in the border city of Reynosa, Tamaulipas, 2013
a El Colegio de Tamaulipas, Ciudad Victoria, Tamaulipas, Mexico, e-mail addresses: ecovera2007@gmail.com, angel120425@hotmail.com
Strategies of regional economic policy are suggested for the border municipality of Reynosa, Tamaulipas, resulting from the analysis of economic data of 2013. A regional input-output matrix and its corresponding multiplier analysis are constructed taking as starting point Leontief and Flegg, Webber and Elliot models. Besides, the influence of the industrial activity is classified and a structural vision of the productive chains is provided, following Rasmussen. The results show the marginal nature of the multipliers of production, employment, income and value added in non-manufacturing productive activities.
Keywords: Reynosa; Tamaulipas; input-output; manufacturing; economy
Con información económica del año 2013, se sugieren estrategias de política económica regional para el municipio fronterizo de Reynosa, Tamaulipas. A partir de los modelos de Leontief y Flegg, Webber y Elliot, se construye una matriz de insumo-producto regional y su correspondiente análisis de multiplicadores. Para complementar el procedimiento, se tipifica la influencia de la actividad industrial y se brinda una visión estructural de los encadenamientos productivos siguiendo a Rasmussen. Los resultados muestran el carácter marginal de los multiplicadores de producción, empleo, remuneración de los asalariados y valor agregado en las actividades productivas no manufactureras.
Palabras clave: Reynosa; Tamaulipas; insumo-producto; manufactura; economía
Introduction
The manufacturing, maquiladora, and export services industries located in the north of Mexico have transformed the economies of the municipalities on the border with the United States. Economic data for 2013 indicate that of the 80 municipalities on the U.S. border, eight account for more than 75% of the total gross border output (Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía [Inegi], 2014). The bloc comprising Tijuana, Mexicali, Nogales, Ciudad Juárez, Piedras Negras, Reynosa, Nuevo Laredo, and Matamoros is an established productive power.
In Reynosa, Tamaulipas, the poor performance of nonmanufacturing industries has dissipated any sign of economic diversification. There, the local system has few intersectoral linkages, especially with the high-performing sectors of computer equipment and electronic component manufacturing. In ideal scenarios for (Walrasian) buying and selling of intersectoral inputs, manufacturing specialization would explain a commercial behavior that is characterized by influencing the economic growth of other productive activities. Accordingly, there are some contributions that identify the regional economic profile of Reynosa nevertheless a systematic review of its sectoral linkages is lacking. Thus, the application of an input-output model is essential for examining the functioning of the local productive structure.
The above raises two key questions: 1) Considering national sectoral behavior, what economic subsectors existed in this city by the end of the study period (2013)? 2) Which of these subsectors exhibited the greatest productive interrelationships due to their ability to create a buying and selling network in the local economy?
The objective of this study is to determine the productive interdependencies between the various economic activities of the border city of Reynosa (see Figure 1). The results are expected to potentially improve the definition of the city’s industrial profile by classifying the subsectors according to the significance of their interdependencies, using different applications of regional economic analysis techniques - specifically, the Leontief models (Leontief, 1936; 1941).
The suitability of estimating a regional input-output matrix and its corresponding accounting multipliers is discussed throughout this article. The regionalization was based on Flegg, Webber & Elliot (1995) and Flegg & Webber (1997), while the Rasmussen model (1956) was used as a reference for the analysis of productive chains.
It is hoped that the methodology used in this study can provide an input for future studies analyzing sectoral interdependencies at the municipal level as well as for the design of public policies for regional economic development.
Theoretical Foundation for the Circular Flow of Productive Interdependencies in an Economy
According to Miller & Blair (2009), the idea of explicitly developing interindustry activity accounting dates back to 1758; at that time, the French economist Quesnay (1759) developed an economic table that represented the economy as a circular flow of inputs and outputs between different economic sectors. Later, in the 19th and 20th centuries, Walras (1874), Pareto (1906), Bortkiewicz (1907), and Cassel (1924) refined Quesnay’s ideas by developing the concept of general equilibrium. In this context, Leontief (a student of Bortkiewicz) formalized these approaches in his doctoral thesis “The economy as a circular flow”. He applied an empirical implementation to the theory of general equilibrium through a two-sector, input-output system that enabled associating supply and demand in an economy. Consequently, Leontief’s model (Leontief, 1936; 1941) was recognized in the latter part of the 20th century with the United Nations’ recommendations regarding the System of National Accounts (Organización de las Naciones Unidas [ONU], 2018). Today, Leontief’s input-output analysis continues to be one of the most widely used methods in economics. Its main applications concern the proportional stability of intersectoral transactions (technical coefficients), the development of regional matrices, and general equilibrium models (Aroche, 2013).
Leontief’s model (Leontief, 1936; 1941) has led to two analytical approaches: static and dynamic. Although the former, which is used in this study, is considered one of the most useful tools for regional and sectoral economic analysis, it fails to predict changes in the components of final demand because multipliers record nontemporal effects on production. Hence, the dynamic version is being considered as an alternative to resolve these limitations (Fuentes, Brugués & González, 2015; Fuentes & Castillo, 2012; Johnson, 1986). The dynamic approach considers that some inputs contribute to the production process but are not immediately used. Therefore, it is necessary to incorporate capital goods to explain production growth (Miller & Blair, 2009). However, the solution methods include the use of specialized software to resolve dynamic optimization problems and are beyond the scope of this article.
From Leontief’s Model to Flegg’s Flexibilization
Initially, the regional matrices were developed using surveys (direct methods). However, to save time and decrease instrumentation costs, alternative techniques (indirect and hybrid methods)1 for building input-output tables were developed.
Of all the indirect methods based on location coefficients, the approach by Flegg et al. (1995; Flegg & Webber, 1997) is considered the most accurate for generating regional coefficients from national coefficients, notwithstanding the discussion concerning the value of the delta parameter (Bonfiglio, 2005; Bonfiglio & Chelli, 2008; Kronenberg, 2011). Flegg & Tohmo (2011) indicated that 0.25 is the most suitable value for estimating regional multipliers.
It should be noted that Inegi stopped generating national input-output matrices for Mexico in the 1980s (Aroche, 2013). However, in 2008 and 2013, Inegi produced national matrices for 2003 and 2008, respectively, and in January 2018, the institution published an input-output matrix for the Mexican economy in 2013. Consequently, more work has focused recently on the empirical development of regional input-output matrices using indirect methods based on location coefficients (Albornoz, Canto & Becerril, 2012; Castro, 2010; Chapa et al., 2009; Chiquiar, Alvarado, Quiroga & Torre, 2017; Dávila, 2002; Fuentes, 2005; González, Díaz & Leal, 2010; Valdés, 2014). Similarly, the regional model is practical for analyzing multiplier effects and productive linkages at the municipal level (Fuentes, 2003; Martínez & Gómez, 2008; Salinas, González, León & Rodríguez, 2017; Tapia, Vite, Salazar & Zamora, 2010).
One of the more prominent subnational studies is that of Fuentes (2003), who estimated input-output interdependencies in the border city of Mexicali, Baja California. To estimate the municipal input-output matrix (IOM), Fuentes used a synthetic indirect method (supply-demand adjustment) to modify the IOM coefficients for the state and then to produce estimates of the municipal IOM coefficients. Fuentes believed that interindustry transactions have the same patterns as state transactions and calculated the regional demand and supply of goods and services as such. Since Mexicali is a city that has historically been dedicated to agriculture, the procedure used to estimate productive interdependencies was ideal, since nonmanufacturing sector activity is key to that city’s economic structure. Reynosa’s economic profile is dominated by manufacturing, and in the absence of a state IOM, it is considered appropriate to use an indirect method based on location coefficients to estimate regional technical coefficients.
Thus, the greatest challenge for researchers in using regional economic analysis techniques to identify productive interdependencies is adaptation of the Leontief model (Leontief, 1936; 1941) based on the flexibilization offered by Flegg et al. (1995) and Flegg & Webber (1997).
This study uses the national input-output matrix for 2013 (Inegi, 2018); it comprises 20 sectors, 79 subsectors, 262 branches, and 822 economic classes, and its values are expressed in millions of 2013 pesos.
A disaggregation level of 50 economic subsectors was used in this study because the economic census information at the national and municipal levels is incongruent. For example, because there are no data for the agricultural sector, working with a higher level of sectoral disaggregation (branch or class) would increase the bias generated by the scarcity of information at a subnational level.
Regarding the regionalization of the national IOM, municipal intersectoral trade coefficients were derived using the FLQ formula presented in Flegg et al. (1995) and Flegg & Webber (1997) with a delta parameter value of 0.25. Per Miller and Blair (2009) and due to the unavailability of the total gross domestic product vector, the Total Remunerated Personnel vector (Inegi, 2014) was used. Using this same vector and the national GDP, the structure for municipal gross production was estimated. Lastly, using matrix algebra, an intersectoral transaction matrix was produced for the economy of Reynosa.2
Methodology
Basic Input-Output Model
Per Miller & Blair (2009), the following matrix notation synthesizes the Leontief model:
where
A = matrix of technical production coefficients (
X = column vector of gross production values, and
Y = column vector of final demand.
Each technical coefficient is calculated as follows:
where
Clearing the Y:
where
I = matrix identifier, and
To solve for X, multiply Y by (I - A)-1, the inverse of the Leontief matrix.
The necessary inputs for this system’s solution are the technical production coefficients (a i,j ) and the values for the final demand vector (Y). If (X) and (a i,j ) are known, the values of (Y) can be obtained directly:
Regionalization of the Input-Output Model
The objective purpose is to find an estimator (
The formula proposed by Flegg et al. (1995) and Flegg & Webber (1997) to find the (
where
As a result,
Where
Once the value of
In turn, the regional input-output model is formulated and resolved in a manner similar to the basic model. According to Dávila (2015), the solution is expressed in the following terms:
I = identity matrix, and
Domestic interregional flows are obtained as a residual between the total domestic inputs of the national IOM and those within the region. Thus, in matrix notation,
where
where
The system solution is obtained in the same way as in the standard model.
Production, Employment, Employee Compensation and Value-added Multipliers
One of the main uses of an input-output model is determination of the effect of exogenous changes on an economy. This process is called impact analysis, and the aggregate measures used in this analysis are called input-output multipliers. The most commonly used multipliers are those that estimate the effects of exogenous changes on industrial production, employee compensation due to increased production, employment generated in each industry due to new production, and the added value created by each productive sector due to increased production (Miller & Blair, 2009).
The production multiplier for sector j is defined as the total value of the production of an economy’s industries needed to satisfy the final demand for the production of sector j when demand increases by one monetary unit. The total “backward” multipliers indicate the necessary increase in the gross value of production of an economy’s various sectors due to an increase in the final demand of a sector of activity. The total “forward” multipliers indicate the regional increase in the gross production value of a sector needed to satisfy a one-unit increase in the final demand of all sectors of the local economy (Miller & Blair, 2009).
Direct effects represent the additional demand for inputs generated by an increase in sectoral final demand, while indirect effects result from the chain reaction of all economic sectors as a result of the additional demand for inputs from the sector that initially changed its final demand. However, not all economic activities have the same capacity to produce multiplier impacts on others (Dávila, 2015).
Per Dávila (2015), the production model solution can be expressed as follows:
then
The elements for the inverse Leontief matrix (L) can be grouped in four submatrices:
Based on the above, the total production multipliers (m) (subscript o) for the region analyzed (superscript r), are obtained by adding the columns with the elements (
Therefore, to calculate the total employment multipliers (
Next, this matrix must be multiplied by the inverse Leontief matrix (L) of the interregional model, and the result is multiplied by the inverse of the previously calculated matrix:
The sum of the columns of the resulting matrix shows the total employment multipliers. Lastly, to calculate the total multipliers of the value added and of employee compensation, we proceed in a similar manner by replacing the values corresponding to each variable in the two previous equations (Dávila, 2015).5
Analysis of the Productive Chains
Classical structural analysis focuses on the identification of backward (BLR) and forward (FLR) productive linkages that quantify direct and indirect effects. In other words, the linkages enable the identification of the sectors with the greatest potential pulling effect or sectors that are associated with many other sectors. Backward linkages measure a sector’s capacity for stimulating the development of other sectors that use its inputs. Forward linkages occur when one sector provides an output that is the input of another sector, which in turn is a stimulus for a third sector that is the input of the first sector (Chenery & Watanabe, cited in Schuschny, 2005).
Productive chains have their origins in studies by Chenery & Watanabe (1958), Rasmussen (1956), and Ghosh (1958), who established a four-part sector classification:6
Base: these chains have lower-than-average backward linkages and higher-than-average forward linkages; they generate little demand but much supply.
Drivers: these chains demand inputs from other intermediate sectors, thereby stimulating the production of intermediate goods.
Independent or isolated: these chains are usually unattractive because they have a minor impact on the economy; their development does not significantly affect the sectors that demand their products nor those that use them as intermediate products.
Key: these chains have some higher-than-average backward and forward linkages; they are important because of the demand they produce and the supply they stimulate in other sectors.
Rasmussen (1956), in particular, suggests two measures based on Leontief's inverse matrix to quantify the direct and indirect backward (BLR) and forward (FLR) effects that a sector may experience. The normalized measures are obtained from the following expressions (Table 1):
where
i’ is a row vector with values equal to the unit,
A is the matrix of technical coefficients,
i is a vector column with values equal to one, and
n is the total number of sectors.
BL < 1 | BL > 1 | |
---|---|---|
FL < 1 | Independent | Driver |
FL > 1 | Base | Key |
Source: Created by the authors based on Rasmussen (1956).
Results
Building the Reynosa 2013 Input-Output Matrix: Context of the Starting Point
To determine how the industrial sector in Reynosa’s economy is structured, this section incorporates some regional economic analysis techniques, including the average annual growth rate of the total gross output, the location quotients of the total remunerated personnel, the input-output multipliers, and an analysis of the productive chains.
Average Annual Growth Rate of the Total Gross Output
Mexico’s northern border is made up of six states that represent 24% of Mexico’s total gross output. There are 80 municipalities along the border with the U.S.; eight of these represent 18% of the border state output. Therefore, the output of the other 72 municipalities is not significant. The municipalities of Tijuana, Mexicali, Nogales, Ciudad Juárez, Piedras Negras, Reynosa, Nuevo Laredo, and Matamoros account for more than 75% of the total gross output of Mexico’s northern border region (Inegi, 2014).
When examining the average annual growth rate (AAGR) of the total gross output (TGO) of the most important border municipalities from 2003-2013,7 Piedras Negras, Coahuila (9.7%) stands out as the highest performer, followed by Reynosa (6.79%), with Tijuana (6.51%) and Nuevo Laredo (5.79%) close behind. Reynosa’s estimated growth exceeded that of Nogales (5.18%), Mexicali (4.94%), Ciudad Juárez (3.49%), and Matamoros (2.64%).
In contrast, when examining the relationship between AAGR and municipal share of the national TGO, Tijuana (1.13%) and Ciudad Juárez (0.99%) were the border cities with the highest contributions, followed by Reynosa (0.85%) and Mexicali (0.75%). These four cities far exceeded the contributions of Matamoros (0.26%), Nuevo Laredo (0.21%), Piedras Negras (0.13%), and Nogales (0.13%) (see Figure 2).
The relationship between the AAGR of the municipal TGO and its share of the national TGO suggests that Reynosa is frequently considered by companies looking for places to invest and locate. Of all the border cities, Reynosa is considered the most important in the northeastern region. This raises two key questions: 1) Considering national sectoral behaviors, which subsectors of the economy were identified in Reynosa by the end of the study period (2013)? 2) Which of these subsectors exhibited the highest productive linkages by having a better capacity for structuring a buying and selling network in the local economy? To answer the first question, the location quotient tool was used. To address the second question, we built an interregional input-output matrix for Reynosa based on Flegg et al. (1995) and Flegg & Webber (1997).
Location Quotients
Location Quotients (LQ)8 are used to explore the evolution of the municipal economic structure and to identify the relative importance of each economic sector in terms of production. The LQ is ideal for comparing the weight of a sector in a region (Reynosa) to the weight of that same sector in a reference economy (Mexico); three results can be produced: strong regional presence
Note 1: The nomenclature for the corresponding subsector can be found in Table 2.
Note 2: The 2003 database does not contain information on the total employee compensation in Reynosa for subsectors 211, 213, or 314.9
Source: Created by the authors based on data from Inegi (2014).
Before proceeding with the interregional input-output model, the location quotients confirm that the manufacturing, maquiladora, and export services industries have been dominant since 2003 and that the region has maintained its hegemony in computer and peripheral equipment manufacturing as well as in motors and electric generators manufacturing (Dávila & Escamilla, 2013; Esqueda, 2018; Esqueda & Trejo, 2014; Pérez, Ceballos & Cogco, 2012).10
Interregional Input-Output Model
This section presents the analysis of the production multipliers (multiplier effect) and the total multipliers (weighted multiplier effect) for the main macroeconomic variables, which
are employee remuneration, employment, and value added. The results are summarized in Table 2.
Multipliers | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Reynosa | |||||
Output | Employment | Salaried Worker Remuneration | Value Added | ||
Secondary, Nonmanufacturing | 211 - Oil and Gas Extraction | 1.009 | 1.166 | 1.034 | 1.004 |
213 - Support Activities for Mining | 1.040 | 1.094 | 1.068 | 1.026 | |
236 - Construction of Buildings | 1.314 | 1.182 | 1.172 | 1.238 | |
237 - Heavy and Civil Engineering Construction | 1.262 | 1.184 | 1.223 | 1.199 | |
238 - Specialty Trade Contractors | 1.143 | 1.042 | 1.094 | 1.070 | |
Secondary, Light Manufacturing | 311 - Food Manufacturing | 1.138 | 1.287 | 1.343 | 1.215 |
312 - Beverage and Tobacco Product Manufacturing | 1.272 | 1.737 | 1.629 | 1.278 | |
314 - Textile Product Mills, except apparel | 1.358 | 1.177 | 1.308 | 1.385 | |
315 - Apparel Manufacturing | 1.288 | 1.138 | 1.234 | 1.419 | |
321 - Wood Product Manufacturing | 1.141 | 1.087 | 1.122 | 1.158 | |
322- Paper Manufacturing | 1.230 | 1.417 | 1.367 | 1.392 | |
323- Printing and Related Support Activities | 1.252 | 1.188 | 1.244 | 1.312 | |
Secondary, Heavy Manufacturing | 325- Chemical Manufacturing | 1.252 | 1.823 | 1.377 | 1.530 |
326- Plastics and Rubber Products Manufacturing | 1.168 | 1.179 | 1.194 | 1.216 | |
327- Nonmetallic Mineral Product Manufacturing | 1.189 | 1.327 | 1.360 | 1.332 | |
332- Fabricated Metal Product Manufacturing | 1.178 | 1.164 | 1.195 | 1.189 | |
333- Machinery Manufacturing | 1.364 | 1.369 | 1.350 | 1.304 | |
334- Computer and Electronic Product Manufacturing | 2.130 | 2.161 | 2.137 | 2.177 | |
335 - Electrical Equipment, Appliance, and Component Manufacturing | 1.455 | 1.429 | 1.452 | 1.448 | |
336 - Transportation Equipment Manufacturing | 1.426 | 1.804 | 1.740 | 1.461 | |
337 - Furniture and Related Product Manufacturing | 1.082 | 1.050 | 1.066 | 1.085 | |
339 - Miscellaneous Manufacturing | 1.307 | 1.189 | 1.235 | 1.263 | |
Tertiary Activities | 431 - Wholesale of Groceries, Food, Beverages, Ice, and Tobacco | 1.085 | 1.273 | 1.509 | 1.048 |
461 - Retail Sale of Groceries, Food, Beverages, Ice, and Tobacco | 1.101 | 1.103 | 1.102 | 1.065 | |
484 - Truck Transportation | 1.078 | 1.056 | 1.052 | 1.042 | |
488 - Support Activities for Transportation | 1.158 | 1.177 | 1.133 | 1.087 | |
493 - Warehousing and Storage | 1.624 | 1.252 | 1.361 | 1.448 | |
512 - Motion Picture and Sound Recording Industries | 1.209 | 1.479 | 1.641 | 1.204 | |
515 - Broadcasting | 1.327 | 3.749 | 3.273 | 1.375 | |
517 - Telecommunications | 1.419 | 2.785 | 1.523 | 1.210 | |
522 - Credit Intermediation and Related Activities | 1.223 | 3.048 | 1.384 | 1.223 | |
523 - Securities, Commodity Contracts, and Other Financial Investments and Related Activities | 1.062 | 1.410 | 1.075 | 1.068 | |
524 - Insurance Carriers and Related Activities | 1.190 | 2.607 | 1.759 | 1.337 | |
531 - Real Estate | 1.028 | 1.158 | 1.203 | 1.015 | |
532 - Rental and Leasing Services | 1.206 | 1.256 | 1.389 | 1.123 | |
541 - Professional, Scientific, and Technical Services | 1.151 | 1.227 | 1.132 | 1.109 | |
561 - Administrative and Support Services | 1.047 | 1.010 | 1.012 | 1.025 | |
562 - Waste Management and Remediation Services | 1.188 | 1.108 | 1.141 | 1.133 | |
611 - Educational Services | 1.039 | 1.020 | 1.008 | 1.020 | |
621 - Ambulatory Health Care Services (naics 621) | 1.127 | 1.080 | 1.035 | 1.083 | |
622 - Hospitals | 1.151 | 1.109 | 1.038 | 1.106 | |
623 - Nursing and Residential Care Facilities | 1.295 | 1.087 | 1.085 | 1.242 | |
624 - Social Assistance | 1.194 | 1.098 | 1.112 | 1.246 | |
711 - Performing Arts, Spectator Sports, and Related Industries | 1.138 | 1.205 | 1.233 | 1.088 | |
713 - Amusement, Gambling, and Recreation Industries | 1.322 | 1.547 | 1.584 | 1.368 | |
721 - Accommodation | 1.149 | 1.303 | 1.380 | 1.101 | |
722 - Food Services and Drinking Places | 1.114 | 1.042 | 1.063 | 1.087 | |
811 - Repair and Maintenance | 1.390 | 1.069 | 1.211 | 1.212 | |
812 - Personal and Laundry Services | 1.090 | 1.072 | 1.164 | 1.059 | |
813 - Religious, Grant-making, Civic, Professional, and Similar Organizations (naics 813) | 1.178 | 1.126 | 1.112 | 1.143 |
Note 1: The numbers in bold are the five highest values.
Source: IOM Reynosa, 2013.
Once the two effects have been measured, the table of multipliers is organized by grouping economic activities according to their sector classification: a) secondary, nonmanufacturing, b) secondary, light manufacturing, c) secondary, heavy manufacturing, and d) tertiary activities.
Secondary, Nonmanufacturing Sector
Although oil and gas extraction is an activity that boosts the economy through the direct and indirect jobs it generates, the results as of 2013 showed that this activity’s productive interdependencies were not very influential in the local economy (they did not show significant multipliers). In contrast, construction-related activities (building and civil engineering construction) maintained above-average values, particularly in terms of output. In other words, each additional peso in the value of their output increases the total output of the rest of the Reynosa sectoral economy by 1.3 pesos.
Secondary, Light Manufacturing Sector
This sector consists of a number of industrial activities that involve the processing of consumer goods and that do not involve a successive productive process of transformation. Beverage and tobacco product manufacturing stood out among the industries in this group because its influence on the local economy was significant in terms of employment and employee compensation. For example, a one-unit increase in employment in this industry generates 1.7 new jobs in Reynosa’s overall economy. Similarly, a one-unit increase in employee remuneration increases the remuneration of employees in Reynosa’s other productive activities by 1.6 pesos.
Secondary, Heavy Manufacturing Sector
The activities with the largest production multipliers were found in heavy manufacturing. In this group, the manufacture of computer equipment and communication and electronic accessories was the most dynamic of the four macroeconomic groups studied. The results show that for each job added in this subsector, 2.1 jobs are added to the local economic system.
Another dynamic subsector is the manufacture of transportation equipment, which was ranked among the highest in terms of output, employee compensation, and value added. For each peso added to this subsector, 1.4 pesos (output), 1.7 pesos (employee compensation), and 1.4 pesos (value added) are created in the overall economy of Reynosa. Also noteworthy is the performance of the chemical industry, which achieved above-average multipliers in the four macroeconomic variables.
Tertiary Activities Sector
When a new job is created in the radio and television subsector, Reynosa’s employment grows by 3.7 jobs. This industry is so buoyant that when there is a one-peso increase in the variable of employee compensation, the employee compensation for all local economic activities increases by 3.2 pesos. Similarly, bonding companies, insurance carriers, and pension funds are also highly ranked in terms of their employment and employee compensation multipliers; this shows their ability to influence the behavior of the local economy.
It is worth noting that the economic subsectors with the lowest values are in the Tertiary Activities group, particularly with regard to value added and employee compensation. The results indicate that services do little to stimulate Reynosa’s economy. It is important to point out that in developed economies the tertiary sector is a very significant catalyst of economic growth due to its intersectoral linkages (Berlingieri, 2014).
Productive Chains
Figure 4 presents the results of the sectoral classification of productive chains based on the Rasmussen criteria (Rasmussen, 1956): seven of them are classified as base activities, 24 are classified as independent, eight are classified as driving forces, and six activities comprise the group of key sectors.
The Rasmussen model enables us to extract two alternatives for the industrial policy profile to be implemented in a region.
One alternative acknowledges that poor sectoral diversification is reflected in the breakdown of numerous local productive chains, which diminishes the potential for reinforcing the internal market (González & Barajas, 2004; Pérez, Ceballos & Cogco, 2014, pp. 201-202). This alternative does not discriminate against industries that are unattractive (independent sectors), or those that do not have a significant impact on the sectors that demand their products.
The other alternative acknowledges that specialization in a few industries leads to better regional competitive advantages, thereby stimulating exports (Porter, 2003). Thus, advocates of specialization want to promote subsectors with growth potential, and that can bring along other economic areas that can become key industries. This ideology highlights the regional vocation by viewing the manufacturing sector as the main engine of growth, but it also excludes certain economic activities and territorial distributions (Becerril, 2012).
The influence of manufacturing on regional productive interdependencies is obvious in Reynosa. Some examples are seen in the key subsectors dedicated to the manufacture of computer equipment, machinery and equipment, electrical appliances, transportation equipment, and the chemical industry. These subsectors are notable not only for their strong demand for intersectoral inputs but also as suppliers of intermediate products. They are also a necessary waystation for the economy’s diverse sectoral flows. From the perspective of regional economic specialization, these industries would have to be considered when developing local public policy, despite the risk of allocating resources to sectors heavily dependent on the U.S. economic cycle.
However, if the aim is to reduce the dependence of the local economy on a few subsectors, those that are in the base and driver quadrants must be considered due to the significance of their intersectoral sales and purchases, respectively. Tertiary economic activities, in particular storage services, repair and maintenance services for motor vehicles, and telecommunications, stand out among the driver subsectors. Regarding the base subsectors, the importance of metal product manufacturing is noteworthy. From the perspective of sectoral diversification, these activities must be included in the local public agenda since their presence in the economic system stimulates the production and consumption of intermediate goods, thereby reducing dependence on manufacturing, maquiladoras, and export services. The diversification strategy would involve focusing institutional efforts on local enterprises to reduce foreign trade risks.
Conclusions
In this study of the historical performance of the average annual growth rate (2003-2013) of the total gross output (TGO) of the most important border cities in northern Mexico (Tijuana, Ciudad Juárez, Reynosa, Mexicali, Matamoros, Nuevo Laredo, Piedras Negras, and Nogales), it was confirmed that during this period Reynosa was among the cities with the best performance both in terms of growth and in TGO share. Reynosa’s performance was comparable to those of Tijuana, Mexicali, and Ciudad Juárez. These four cities have become the border cities with the most economic influence in terms of the value of their TGOS.
The regional performance data analyzed here perpetuate the ongoing debate between specialization (a group of companies in the same sector that support the argument that growth is driven by industries with regional competitive advantages) and economic diversification (companies from different sectors that provide services for firms and workers, advocating growth resulting from the development of the industrial base).
If the aim is to reinforce the manufacturing sector’s position as the main driver of economic growth in Reynosa, one would have to consider the influence of heavy manufacturing on regional productive interdependencies. This is supported by the high levels of employment generated by the manufacturing of computer equipment, electrical accessories and transportation equipment (heavy manufacturing). This study demonstrated that the manufacturing capacity installed in this region produces strong demand for intersectoral inputs and the supply of intermediate products, creating a necessary waystation for the rest of the economic flows.
Despite the above, caution must be exercised regarding the specialization of the manufacturing, maquiladora, and export services industries. Industry concentration has not fostered a virtuous mechanism that develops local integration through commercial exchanges. This is reflected in I) the marginal value of the multipliers for production, employment, employee compensation, and value added for the rest of the productive activities; II) the weakness of the productive chains in nonmanufacturing activities; and III) the inadequate presence of the tertiary sector (in terms of production) with respect to its national counterpart.
When examining the system’s flows and productive chains using an interregional input-output matrix, it was demonstrated that heavy industry does not necessarily imply that all subsectors generate high multipliers. An example of this is the results obtained for the plastic and rubber industry and industries linked to the manufacture of metal products.
Furthermore, if the intention is to reduce the local economy’s dependence on a few subsectors, the hegemony of light manufacturing (manufacture of textiles and clothing) and tertiary economic activities (storage services, bonding companies, and companies linked to telecommunications) must be considered. The results showed that the presence of these activities in the economic system stimulates the production and consumption of intermediate goods. Thus, by supporting the performance of these activities, Reynosa’s economic growth would be fostered by solidifying the local supply chains.
In view of the above and regardless of the preferred approach (specialization or diversification), we recommend a forward-looking regional growth policy that promotes the system’s different expressions.
Regarding the methodology used, it is noted above that the lack of information on gross internal output at the municipal level thwarts a detailed analysis of the operation of the productive framework. Furthermore, the lack of current information (data are only available up to 2013) limits the accuracy of the estimated results. However, the models based on Flegg et al. (1995), Flegg & Webber (1997), and Rasmussen (1956) are suitable for examining the behavior of a city’s productive sector structure.
Although agriculture does not dominate Reynosa’s productive sector, we recommend incorporating information on this sector (compatible with the economic census). This would lead to improved estimates in the regional input-output model. In any case, what is needed is a comprehensive tool that can examine the production of goods and services in detail. With such a tool, the development of a municipal social accounting matrix or a general equilibrium model would be very useful as a reference framework for a regional structural analysis.
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1 Indirect and hybrid methods incorporate better information (quantitative and qualitative) from official sources, specialized partial surveys, and expert opinions in the area as well as a mathematical process for balancing external data (Bravo & Castro, 2006; Chapa, Ayala & Hernández, 2009; Fuentes, 2005).
2 Due to space limitations, the results of the application of the interregional Leontief model to Reynosa are presented in the appendices. Interested readers may request the authors to provide the databases that support the results and were used to produce the input-output multipliers in Table 2.
3 For clarity, to estimate the results presented in this article, the analysis was limited to the matrix of regional coefficients of intersectoral trade A rr .
4 For clarity, to estimate the results presented in this article, the analysis was limited to sub-matrix L 11 so as to be consistent with the delineation of the previously mentioned A rr matrix.
5 The multipliers for employee compensation and value added are obtained from the national IOM data for 2013 regarding employee compensation and gross value added.
6 It is acknowledged that there are alternative techniques for calculating productive interdependencies and establishing sectoral classifications for both national and sub-national economies. These alternatives include the hypothetical extraction method developed by Dietzenbacher, Linden & Steenge (1993) and network theory. The studies by Chraki (2016) and Llano (2009) stand out as the best examples of the hypothetical extraction method, while network theory has evolved out of many contributions, notably the seminal work of García & Ramos (2003) and studies by Hurtado & Martínez (2017), Molina & Gutiérrez (2015), and Fuentes, Cárdenas & Brugués (2013).
7 The analysis of the AAGR of the TGO is based on economic census data published by Inegi (2004; 2014).
8 The formula for estimating the location quotient is as follows:
9 Due to the unavailability of the sectoral vector for gross domestic product, per Miller & Blair (2009), sectoral information on total employee compensation was used to calculate the location quotients. The data are from the economic census conducted by Inegi for 2003 and 2013 (Inegi, 2004; 2014). The total employee compensation variable was selected to avoid inconsistencies between the location quotients and the indirect method used to regionalize the national IOM.
10 When manufacturing is in a procyclical condition, it is a sign of future contractions, as was the case for the electronics industry in Reynosa. From 2008 to 2013, the number of jobs declined from 42 232 to 33 392. In addition, the value of its gross output decreased from 11 billion to 9 billion pesos (Inegi, 2009; 2014).
Received: December 07, 2018; Accepted: June 27, 2019