Articles

 

Rare earth element geochemistry of the Late Quaternary tephra and volcano–clastic sediments from the Pachuca sub–basin, north–eastern Basin of Mexico

 

P. D. Roy¹*, O. Morton–Bermea², E. Hernández–Álvarez², T. Pi¹, R. Lozano¹

 

¹ Instituto de Geología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad Universitaria, Del. Coyoacán, 04510, Mexico City, Mexico. *Corresponding author: roy@geologia.unam.mx

² Instituto de Geofísica, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad Universitaria, Del. Coyoacán, 04510, Mexico City, Mexico.

 

Received: May 18, 2009
Accepted: August 6, 2009

 

Resumen

Este estudio presenta el comportamiento geoquímico de las tierras raras (TR) en tefra y depósitos volcaniclásticos subyacentes del Cuaternario Tardío en la sub–cuenca de Pachuca, ubicada en la parte noreste de la Cuenca de México. Los contenidos totales de TR, así como los patrones normalizados de TR, índices de fraccionamiento de TR ligeras (La/Sm), pesadas (Gd/Yb), total (La/Yb) y anomalía de Eu son comparados con la mineralogía y el contenido de elementos mayores y trazas, con el propósito de encontrar los firmas geoquímicas de la fuente. Las tefras de composición basáltica y basáltica–andesítica, con plagioclasa, piroxeno y olivino, se caracterizan por bajos contenidos de TR, bajos índices de fraccionamiento de TR ligeras y pesadas, así como anomalía positiva de Eu. Los sedimentos subyacentes muestran dos diferentes comportamientos de TR e indican que la proveniencia varía entre rocas félsicas y máficas durante el Cuaternario Tardío. La composición geoquímica y los patrones normalizados de TR del grupo I (15–17 m, 4.6–9.6 m y 2–4.6 m) son comparables a los de las tefras y sugieren una fuente máfica. Además, se caracterizan por una ausencia de anomalía de Eu y bajo contenido en el total de TR, comparada con las muestras del grupo II. Los sedimentos del grupo II (9.6–15 m y 0–2 m) contienen abundante feldespato potásico y los datos geoquímicos muestran altas concentraciones en el total de TR, anomalía negativa de Eu y son enriquecidas en Zr, Y y Th. Esto último indica una contribución de minerales pesados, tales como alanita, monacita y zircón, típica de rocas félsicas.

Palabras clave: Geoquímica, TR, Proveniencia, Sedimento volcán–clastico, Cuenca de México.

 

Abstract

Chondrite normalized REE patterns, fractionations of light (La/Sm), heavy (Gd/Yb) and total (La/Yb) REE and Eu anomalies of the Late Quaternary multi–layer tephra fall deposits and overlying volcano–clastic sediments deposited in the Pachuca sub–basin (north–eastern Basin of Mexico) are studied to characterize their geochemical signatures. The REE geochemistry is compared with mineralogical abundances and multi–element concentrations to identify the possible source terrains contributing sediments into the basin. The basalt to basaltic–andesite tephra deposits have chemical compositions comparable to the rocks from Apan–Tezontepec volcanic field and consist of plagioclase, pyroxene and olivine. They are characterized by lower total REE abundances, lower light and heavy REE fractionations and a positive Eu anomaly. The overlying sediments show significantly different REE characteristics and can be divided into two different groups (i.e. I and II). The geochemical composition and REE patterns of group I (15–17 m, 4.6–9.6 m and 2–4.6 m depths) are comparable to the tephra deposits and suggest a mafic provenance. They are characterized by the absence of the Eu anomaly and lower total REE concentrations compared to group II. In group II (9.6–15 m and 0–2 m depths), higher total REE, a negative Eu anomaly, abundant K–feldspar and enriched Zr, Y and Th indicate felsic source terrains containing heavy minerals such as allanite, monazite and zircon.

Key words: Geochemistry, REE, Provenance, volcano–clastic sediment, Basin of Mexico.

 

Introduction

Rare earth elements (REE) are transported in particulate matter (Rollinson, 1993) and regarded as relatively immobile during low–grade metamorphism and hydrothermal alteration (Michard, 1989). They comprise of a coherent group of trace elements (trivalent state) with similar chemical and physical properties. Compared to the signatures of major elements that are modified by the diagenetic history of the sediments, degree of metamorphism and alteration of the sedimentary system (Lee, 2002), the REE are insoluble in aqueous solutions and adsorbed to the sheet silicates (clay minerals) or included in the inter layer cation sites. They are unaffected by chemical alteration and transferred from source rocks to sedimentary basins without significant fractionation (Nesbitt, 1979; Davies, 1980; Girty et al., 1994; Bierlein, 1995). So, the studies of Taylor and McLennan (1985), Preston et al. (1998), Davies and Pickering (1999), Svendsen and Hartley (2002) and Andersson et al. (2004) have emphasized the importance of REE to characterize source terrains.

The mineralogical and chemical composition of source rock is the most important factor that controls the abundance of REE in the clastic sediments. The REE are incompatible in basaltic and andesitic liquids and vice versa (Cox et al., 1995). Mineralogical distribution controls the REE abundance and their fractionation. Sediments enriched in quartz and carbonate minerals (i.e. calcite and dolomite) have very low REE abundance (Taylor and McLennan, 1985). Although there is no direct relationship between REE abundance and clay minerals, the studies by Cullers et al. (1987, 1988), Sharma and Rajamani (2000) and Singh and Rajamani (2001) show that the bulk REE reside in the finer silt–clay fractions of the sediments. Another significant contributor of REE is the presence of different heavy minerals like zircon, allanite, monazite, sphene and garnet (Gromet and Silver, 1983). For example, addition of zircon and garnet in the sediments increases the Yb abundance and decreases the fractionation of heavy REE (Gd/Yb). Similarly, higher abundance of allanite increases the concentration of light REE and monazite increases the abundance of middle REE compared to heavy REE (McLennan, 1989). REE fractionations are also affected by depositional environment and intensity of chemical weathering. Depositional environment causes change in the valency state of certain REE leading to their fractionation (McLennan, 1989). Under reducing environment, Eu⁺² precipitates as complexes of SO₄^–2, CO₃^–2 and Cl^– (Sverjensky, 1984; Michard and Alberede, 1986). Similarly, Ce⁺⁴ precipitates as oxide and carbonate under oxidizing environments (Elderfield and Greaves, 1982; Rollinson, 1993) and alkaline conditions (Moeller and Bau, 1993; Volkova, 1998; Roy and Smykatz–Kloss, 2007). In a profile consisting of granodioritic parent rock and its altered product, Nesbitt (1979) reported that REE abundance of the altered product was higher compared to both parent material and residual clay.

The Basin of Mexico is a topographically closed, high altitude (2240 m asl) sedimentary basin, located in the central–eastern part of the Trans Mexican Volcanic Belt (TMVB) (Bradbury, 1989; Lozano–Garcia et al., 1993). The topographically closed nature of the basin is associated with the formation of the Chichinautzin volcanic field during 7.8 Ma (Mooser et al., 1974; Urrutia–Fucugauchi and Martín del Pozzo, 1993). The basin presently hosts a number of sub–basins, i.e. Xochimilco and Chalco in the south, Texcoco in the centre, Zumpango and Xaltocan in the north and Tecocomulco and Pachuca in the north–east (Fig. 1). The sediments of the basin are thoroughly investigated for its biological (pollen and diatom contents) and physical (magnetic) properties by Bradbury (1989), Lozano–García et al. (1993), Caballero (1997), Caballero and Ortega–Guerrero (1998), Lozano–García and Ortega–Guerrero (1998) and Caballero et al. (1999). Geochemical investigations are relatively scarce, except for the works by Geyne et al. (1963), García–Palomo et al. (2002) and Roy et al. (2008, 2009). Geyne et al. (1963) and García–Palomo et al. (2002) have reported the geochemical compositions of the volcanic deposits in the Sierra de Pachuca and Apan regions, respectively. Recently, Roy et al. (2008, 2009) studied the geochemical properties of the lacustrine sediments from the Tecocomulco sub–basin to understand the Pleistocene–Holocene paleo–environmental conditions.

In this study, we present new geochemical data on REE systematic of the Late Quaternary multi–layered tephra fall deposits and overlying volcano–clastic sediments deposited in the Pachuca sub–basin to strengthen the geochemical investigations in the region. The abundance and fractionations of REE were compared with mineralogy and major and trace element geochemistry to characterize the possible source terrains of the volcano–clastic sedimentary sequence.

 

Regional setting

The Pachuca sub–basin has a temperate climate (average temperature 13–15 °C) and receives an average annual precipitation of ca. 680 mm. Cretaceous marine limestone, shale, sandstone and evaporite deposits are present in the south and north of the basin, respectively. Low temperature shallow depth hydrothermal vein deposits of pyrite, sphalerite, chalcopyrite and chalcosite are present in the mining district of Real de Monte (Dueñas–García et al., 1992). The Tertiary granodiorite to diorite are present at Zimapan and Jacala located at ca.100 km north–west of the sub–basin. The sub–basin is surrounded by Tertiary sedimentary and igneous rocks in the vicinity. The sedimentary rocks consist of sandstones, gravels and conglomerates (Dueñas–García et al., 1992) and the igneous rocks comprise inter–layering of felsic and mafic voleanies exposed in the Sierra de Pachuca (Fig. 1). These rocks belong to the Santiago (rhyolite), Corteza (andesite), Pachuca (andesite–dacite), Real de Monte (andesite), Santa Gertrudis (dacite), Vizcaína (andesite) and Cerezo (rhyolite–dacite) Formations (Geyne et al., 1963). The overlying lithologies exposed in the vicinity are constituted by basaltic–andesites of the Zumate Formation, rhyolites of the Tezuantla Formation and basaltic–andesite of the San Cristóbal Formation (Geyne et al., 1963).

The endorreic nature of the Pachuca sub–basin oceurred through an intensive eruptive period of mafic eruptions in the Apan–Tezontepec volcanic field (ATVF) during Pliocene–Pleistocene (Dueñas–García et al., 1992; García–Palomo et al., 2002). The rocks of ATVF are characterised by presence of basalt to basaltic–andesites with aphanitic texture and phenocrysts of olivine and plagioclase (García–Palomo et al., 2002).

 

Material and methods

A total of 42 samples were collected from a 20 m thick exposed profile in the central part of the Pachuca sub–basin (Fig. 1). The profile consists of fining upward tephra fall deposits (17.0 and 20.0 m depths) at the base and overlying volcano–clastic sediments. The tephra deposits consist of at least 6 different layers containing black–brown lapilli and coarse ash scoria. Each layer begins with lapilli and terminates with coarse ash. The overlying clastic sediments are characterized by massive silty–clay (15.0 – 17.0 m), mádium to fine sand (9.6 – 15.0 m), intercalations of silt and silty–clay (4.6 – 9.6 m) and massive fine sand (2.0 – 4.6 m) and conglomerates (0 – 2.0 m). For geochemical analysis, 12 different samples were collected from the tephra layers and 30 samples from the overlying clastic sediments (Fig. 2).

The samples were subjected to oven drying at 40°C, homogenizing and grinding in an agate mortar. The concentrations of REE were analyzed in a VG Elemental PlasmaQuad3 ICP–MS following the procedure of Morton–Bermea et al. (1997). Analytical precision of the REE is < 10 %. Mineralogy was determined on a Philips 1130/96 X–ray diffractometer with digital data collection using Cu target from 4° to 70° (2θ) at a speed of 1°/min in the bulk powder samples. The oxides of 10 major elements (Si, Al, Ti, Fe, Ca, Mg, Na, K, Mn and P) were measured in fused discs and trace elements (Zr, Y, Zn and Th) were measured in pressed pellets after the methods of Verma et al. (1996) and Lozano and Bernal (2005) in a Siemens SRS 3000 wavelength dispersive X–ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometer. The precision of the analysis is < 10 % for both major and trace elements.

 

Results

Rare earth elements

The REE concentrations of the tephra, sediments and upper continental crust (Taylor and McLennan, 1981) are normalized to the chondrite meteorite (Taylor and McLennan, 1985) to eliminate the abundance variations between elements with even and odd atomic numbers and to compare their normalized REE patterns and fractionations of light REE (La/Sm), heavy REE (Gd/Yb) and total REE (La/Yb) and Eu anomaly (Eu/Eu* = Eu /V[Sm × Gd]).

The REE patterns of the tephra fall deposits are more homogeneous compared to the overlying sediments (Fig. 3). They are characterized by comparable and low light (La/Sm = 1.53–2.02) and heavy (Gd/Yb = 1.12–1.73) REE fractionations and a positive Eu anomaly (Eu/Eu* = 0.99–1.30). The tephra are relatively less fractionated in total REE compared to rest of the sediments. The La/Yb of the tephra varies between 2.25 and 5.22 (Table 1).

Based on their REE patterns and Eu anomalies, the overlying sediments are divided into two different groups (i.e. I and II). The first group (I) includes sediments from the depths of 15.0–17.0 m (massive silty–clay), 4.6–9.6 m (intercalations of silt and silty–clay) and 2.0–4.6 m (massive fine sand). The group II comprises samples from depths of 9.6–15.0 m (massive mádium to fine sand) and 2.0–0 m (conglomerates) (Fig. 2).

The REE patterns of group I samples (Fig. 3) are characterized by slightly enriched light REE (La to Sm) compared to heavy REE (Gd to Lu). However, they differ among themselves in terms of their total REE abundances and Eu anomalies (Table 1). They are characterized by relatively higher light REE fractionation (La/Sm = 2.07–3.83) compared to heavy REE (Gd/Yb = 1.15–1.64) and variable Eu anomaly (Eu/Eu* = 0.82–1.12). Table 1 presents the REE concentrations and chondrite normalized REE ratios of group I samples and upper continental crust (UCC).

The group II sediments show REE patterns similar to UCC (Fig. 4): enriched light REE, flat heavy REE and negative Eu anomaly. They are highly fractionated in light REE (La/Sm = 2.19–4.66) compared to heavy REE (Gd/Yb = 0.52–1.75) and their Eu anomaly varies between 0.24 and 0.97. Table 2 presents REE concentrations and chondrite normalized REE ratios of group II samples and UCC. The sediments of both the groups have similarly fractionated total REE contents: La/Yb vary between 4.12 and 8.71 in group I sediments and ranges from 3.57 to 8.89 in sediments of group II. Fig. 5 shows fractionations of (a) light REE, (b) heavy REE, and (c) total REE with increasing REE abundance in tephra deposits and overlying sediments.

The tephra deposits and sediments can also be differentiated in terms of their total REE (TREE) concentrations. The tephra deposits have the lowest (TREE = 55–128 ppm), group I sediments have intermediate (TREE = 82–248 ppm) and group II sediments have the highest (TREE = 126–392 ppm) REE concentrations. The tephra have lower TREE abundance compared to UCC (Table 1). Sediments show a large TREE variation and most of them have higher TREE concentrations than UCC (Tables 1 and 2). The samples of both the groups have higher Eu concentration compared to UCC.

Mineralogy

Table 3 presents the semi–quantitative estimation of the bulk mineralogy of the tephra deposits and sediments. The tephra deposits consist of plagioclase as the most abundant mineral followed by pyroxene. Olivine is present in minor amounts. The mineralogical distribution and their abundance in the sediments of groups I and II are different from tephra. In group I, plagioclase and polymorphs of quartz (i.e. tridymite and cristallobalite) are the most abundant minerals. Quartz, K–feldspars, amphiboles, mica and clay minerals are present in minor amounts. Both pyroxene and olivine are absent. Group II consists of K–feldspar, plagioclase, tridymite/cristobalite and mica in minor amounts.

Major and trace elements

The tephra layers have comparable chemical composition and basalt to basaltic–andesite in nature (SiO₂ = 49.9–57.1%). They show variable concentrations of Al₂O₃ (13.0–18.5 %), TiO₂ (0.9–1.6 %), Na₂O (0.9–3.1 %), K₂O (0.4–1.3 %), CaO (1.7–9.7 %), MgO (2.7–7.5 %), Fe₂O₃ (6.0–9.0 %) and relatively homogeneous concentrations of P₂O₅ (0.15–0.39 %), Zr (142–215 ppm), Y (17–39 ppm), Zn (69–89 ppm) and Th (3 ppm).

Except for a few elements, the chemical composition of group I sediments is comparable to tephra (SiO₂: 52.6–61.7 %, Al₂O₃: 16.4–19.0 %, TiO₂: 0.8–1.7 %, Na₂O: 1.9–3.3 %, K₂O: 1.0–1.8 %, CaO: 2.2–6.9 %, Fe₂O₃: 5.6–9.2 %, P₂O₅: 0.04–0.31 %, Y: 24–42 ppm). They are depleted in MgO (1.0–3.2%) and enriched in Zr (226–512 ppm), Zn (68–152 ppm) and Th (3–11 ppm) compared to tephra. Both the tephra deposits and group I sediments have higher concentrations of TiO₂, Al2O3, Fe2O3, MnO, MgO, CaO and P2O5 compared to group II sediments.

Group II sediments show higher concentrations of SiO₂ (62.2–70.9 %), K₂O (1.9–5.4 %) and Na₂O (2.1–4.2 %). The distributions of Zr (293–698 ppm), Y (31–71 ppm), Zn (84–181 pm) and Th (5–32 ppm) show large variations and most of the samples have higher concentrations of these elements than the sediments of group I. Table 4 presents the average concentrations of major and trace elements in the tephra deposits and overlying sediments.

The degree of chemical alteration of the samples is estimated by the calculation of the chemical index of alteration (CIA) using the formula of Nesbitt and Young (1984), where

CIA= [Al₂O₃ / (Al₂O₃+CaO+Na₂O+K₂O)] × 100.

The CIA of tephra deposits (44 – 51) suggests the absence of chemical weathering. The CIA values of the sediments vary between 49 and 77. The sediments of group I (49–77) and group II (51–65) have comparable CIA values which indicate low to intermediate chemical weathering in the source terrains (Table 4).

Statistical analysis

Table 5 presents the coefficient of correlation between the REE and different major and trace elements at 95% significant level (p<0.05). Among the compositional variables, TiO₂, Fe₂O3, MgO and CaO show strong negative correlations and Al₂O₃, MnO and P₂O₅ show significant negative correlations with the REE and TREE. Constituents like SiO₂, K₂O, Zr, Y, Zn and Th show positive correlations. Zr shows a strong correlation with both light REE (LREE) and heavy REE (HREE) and an intermediate correlation with middle rare earth elements. The correlation coefficient of K₂O, Y, Zn and Th are stronger with HREE compared to LREE. Similarly, SiO₂ shows stronger correlation with LREE compared to HREE. Na₂O show significant positive correlation with Eu.

 

Discussion

The tephra fall deposits of the Pachuca sub–basin are basalt to basaltic–andesite in nature and have chemical and mineralogical compositions comparable to the volcanic products from the Apan–Tezontepec volcanic field (ATVF). Both of them also have equivalent SiO₂ concentrations. The rocks of ATVF consist of basalt to basaltic–andesites that are characterized by the occurrence of olivine and plagioclase (García–Palomo et al., 2002).

The tephra deposits have SiO₂ concentrations of 49.9–57.1% and the rocks of ATVF have concentration of SiO2 varying between 50.0 and 56.0% (García–Palomo et al., 2002). This suggests that the tephra layers present at the base of the studied profile are possibly sourced from different eruptive events at ATVF. The K/Ar dates constrained the volcanic activities at ATVF between 1.50 Ma and 0.47 Ma (Cantagrel and Robin, 1979; López–Hernández and Castillo–Hernández, 1997; Carrasco et al., 1997). So the overlying sediments were likely deposited after 0.47 Ma.

In order to understand the REE systematic (abundance and pattern) of the tephra deposits and overlying sediments, chondrite normalized light REE (Fig. 5a), heavy REE (Fig. 5b) and total REE (Fig. 5c) fractionations are taken into consideration. The samples do not show any heavy REE fractionation but indicate varying degrees of light REE fractionation. With increasing REE abundance (La), the light REE fractionation (La/Sm) of group II sediments remains relatively constant. The tephra deposits and group I sediments show gradually increasing light REE fractionation. This feature is similar for their total REE fractionations (Fig. 5c). So, the differences in REE patterns are mainly caused by variations in the La/Sm ratios (Fig. 5d). The absence of authigenic minerals (i.e. carbonates and evaporites) both in the tephra deposits and overlying sediments rules out the effect of inflow geochemistry on REE fractionations. Similarly, intermediate and comparable CIA values (Table 4) also rule out the effect of chemical weathering on REE abundance and their fractionations. This suggests that the REE abundance and their fractionations are controlled mainly by the source rock composition and clastic mineralogy including heavy minerals. In the absence of heavy mineral data, concentrations of elements associated with heavy minerals are considered. For example, higher concentration of Zr is related to zircon, Th with both monazite and allanite and Ti to sphene.

The tephra deposits consisting of pyroxene and olivine show lower total REE abundance. The REE are incompatible in basaltic and andesitic liquids and are only slightly fractionated (Rollinson, 1993). This is mirrored by the lower light and heavy REE fractionations (Fig. 3 and Table 1) and the negative coefficient of correlation between TiO₂, Fe₂O₃, MnO, CaO, MgO, P₂O₅ and TREE (Table 5). The positive Eu anomaly mirrors the higher abundance of plagioclase (Table 3). The higher concentration of P₂O₅ (0.15–0.39 %) in the tephra could be from the accessory phases such as apatite and monazite. However, lower Th concentration (Table 4) and light REE (La to Sm) rule out the presence of monazite. So, the higher concentrations of middle REE (Gd to Ho) in tephra layers compared to UCC (Table 1) is mainly caused by the occurrence of apatite. Apart from plagioclase, a part of the CaO in the tephra is associated with apatite.

The sediments overlying the tephra deposits show comparable LREE and HREE fractionations (Fig. 5d) but variable REE patterns (Figs. 3 and 4), TREE contents and Eu anomalies (Tables 1 and 2). Most of the group I sediments have lower TREE concentrations and absence of Eu anomalies compared to group II sediments. This variable REE systematic is also mirrored by their different mineralogical assemblages and geochemical compositions. Group I sediments have plagioclases and amphibole and geochemical composition comparable to the tephra layers (Table 4). The comparable REE systematic and geochemical composition between group I sediments and tephra and presence of mafic minerals (plagioclases and amphibole) suggest that the group I sediments are possibly sourced from mafic rocks with chemical composition similar to the tephra deposits.

The sediments of group II have higher concentrations of SiO₂, K₂O, Na₂O, Zr, Y, Zn and Th (Table 4), higher abundance of K–feldspar (Table 3) and higher TREE concentrations (Table 2). The REE are preferentially partitioned into melts during crystallization and are enriched in felsic rocks compared to mafic rocks (Feng and Kevrich, 1990). The higher concentrations of SiO₂, K₂O, Na₂O, Zr, Y, Zn and Th (Table 4), their positive correlation with REE and TREE (Table 5) and higher abundance of felsic mineral K–feldspar in group II sediments point to a source terrain comprising of felsic rocks. Higher concentrations of both Th and Zr in group II sediments suggest that the higher LREE abundance could be due to presence of monazite and allanite and higher HREE abundance could be due to presence of zircon. The provenance of the sediments that varíes between mafic and felsic source terrains is supported by the surrounding geology. The sierra de Pachuca consists of alternated layers of mafic and felsic rocks (Geyne et al., 1963). So the sediments from depths of 15–17 m, 4.6–9.6 m and 2–4.6 m (group I) could be derived from the erosión of mafic to intermediate rocks consisting of bas altic–andesite, andesite and andesite–dacite, whereas the sediments from depths of 9.6–15 m and 0–2 m (group II) are possibly sourced from dacite, dacite–rhyolite and rhyolites. The geochemical characteristics of group II sediments suggest the presence of heavy minerals (monazite and allanite) that are typical of intrusive plutonic rocks, e.g. granodiorite, granite and pegmatite. However detail geochemical analysis of the surrounding geology is required to point out the exact source terrains contributing sediments to the Pachuca sub–basin.

 

Conclusions

The tephra fall deposits and overlying volcano–clastic sediments from the Pachuca sub–basin located at the north–eastern Basin of México show significantly different REE patterns, fractionations and Eu anomalies. The basalt to basaltic–andesite tephra layers present at the base of the sequence were likely sourced from the Apan–Tezontepec volcanic field and characterized by lower TREE, lower light and heavy REE fractionations and positive Eu anomaly. The positive Eu anomaly reflects the higher abundance of plagioclase. Similarly, the higher concentrations of middle REE suggest presence of apatite. Based on the REE abundances and Eu anomalies, the sediments overlying the tephra are divided into two different groups and show comparable light, heavy and total REE fractionations. However, group I sediments have geochemical compositions and Eu anomalies comparable to the tephra. They are characterized by the absence of Eu anomaly and lower TREE abundances compared to group II sediments and suggest a mafic provenance possibly from the basaltic–andesite and andesites exposed in the Sierra de Pachuca. Group II show a negative Eu anomaly comparable to UCC, but their TREE concentrations are higher than UCC. Higher concentrations of light REE and Th in group II suggest the occurrence of trace minerals (allanite and monazite). Similarly, higher abundances of heavy REE and Zr suggest presence of zircon. All of these are indicative of a provenance comprising of plutonic igneous rocks or felsic volcanic rocks, e.g. dacite and rhyolite.

 

Acknowledgements

P. D. R acknowledges the financial support from PROMEP–SEP (project No. PROMEP/103.5/05/1919) and technical help from Iliana Rodríguez–Ruíz. We would like to thank the three reviewers and Dr. Josá Luis Macías for their critical comments and suggestions.

 

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