Introduction

The evolution of organizational change¹ (OC) models originated in the work of ^{Lewin (1947)}. The analysis of their characteristics has distinguished their development; most are designed based on their contributions and limitations. Some of the authors of OC have focused on the existing difference between the types of change: those analyzed in the context of their phases and classified as continuous or stepped change (^{Rosenbaum, More & Steane, 2018}). Others have focused on classifying changes as planned and emergent (^{Beer & Nohria, 2000}).

Organizations invest a great deal of financial resources, time, and staff commitment during change, and despite this, most efforts to implement it fail. The literature shows that the success rate of change is below 30% (^{Beer et al., 2000}). Failure rates reveal the need for research to find factors that increase the probability of success.

The term “Lean production” appeared in the academic world to describe the Toyota production system (^{Ohno, 1988}; ^{Abdelhadi, 2015}). After the 1990s, there was a gradual and constant inclusion of lean thinking (LTH) through the dissemination of its principles, which explain how to create real and lasting value in any type of company, with examples in North America, Europe, and Japan (^{Womack & Jones, 1997}).

The service sector is responsible for generating the largest source of income in developed countries, representing 63% of the Gross Domestic Product worldwide (^{Piercy & Rich, 2009}) and 70% of job creation in most develop countries. Despite this, the perception remains that it is an unproductive sector (^{Maroto Sánchez, 2010}). Tourism is directly responsible for one out of every ten jobs (^{UNWTO, 2020}).

Globalization causes intense competition and poses a challenge to the survival of organizations. Consequently, constant changes and innovations are generated in their processes to reduce costs, improve quality, be more flexible in the face of changes, and reduce service times.

Tourism is one of the sectors most affected by crises and provides an early warning of the impact on other sectors (^{Glaesser, 2006}). COVID-19 has affected tourism like no other previous event in history. In May 2020, 100% of destinations had some type of restriction on international tourism and 75% (163) faced closed borders, with the reduction in international visitors estimated as being between 58 and 78%— between USD 860 billion and USD 1.2 trillion (^{UNWTO, 2020})—; so the sector will need models of change to recover.

If current trends in the study of organizational change are maintained, they will soon become obsolete and irrelevant. New and imaginative ways of analyzing it must be explored (^{By, 2020}). Reviewing the relevant literature on change methods, considerable disagreement is observed regarding the most appropriate ones (^{Bamford & Forrester, 2003}).

The study of customer value (CV) in tourism services in conjunction with customer satisfaction and service quality will continue to play a determining role in the success or failure of organizations (^{Oh & Kim, 2017}). In hotel organizations, wastes manifest themselves in delays, cancellations, complaints, errors, and overselling of capacities (^{Al-Aomar, 2019}). Eliminating them requires adopting a systematic way of thinking (^{Vlachos & Bogdanovic, 2013}).

The above shows the need to manage changes with lean thinking in tourism services to increase customer value as a problem to be solved within the framework of this research. Consequently, the research aims to develop a model of organizational change management with lean thinking in tourism services to increase customer value.

Background

OC (^{Van de Ven & Poole, 1995}) is an empirical observation of different qualities or states over time. It is any alteration in the status quo or quasi-stationary equilibrium of an organism, situation, or process that affects the organization’s structure, technology, and human resources (^{Zaltman & Duncan, 1977}).

Within the publications found in Scopus, which have OC as a direct thematic nucleus, and based on the information contained therein, the most influential ones were searched. The search engine TAK (Title, Abstract and Keywords) was used in English and Spanish from 2000 to 2019. The analysis suggested that, of the 10 743 articles found, the greatest contributions in the field of OC are related to change management and leadership (Table 1)—results that do not differ from those obtained by ^{Unger, Mosley, and Gillis (2017)}—followed by learning, organizational culture, innovation, and resistance to change. These contributions have been present in the last 20 years, and nothing indicates this trend will change in the coming years.

^{Pettigrew (1990)} suggests at least three dimensions of change to be considered: context, content, and process together with their interconnections through time. ^{Armenakis and Bedeian (1999)} state that, to measure its outcome, adding the dimension of criterion variable is necessary. ^{Anderson and Anderson (2010)} consider content, context, and people. The authors of this article agree with the dimensions proposed by ^{Pettigrew (1990)} but add the objective of change as a dimension, which had been partially analyzed as a criterion of change or included in the content.

Change is the process of taking an organization from its current to the desired state while solving problems along the way. Leadership means showing the way, with personal power to win hearts and minds to work together toward a common goal. Therefore, for a CEO, leadership in the change process represents developing a vision for the future and acting accordingly; what the leader does is more important than what they appear to do (^{Hooper & Potter, 2019}).

Organizational change implies management: planning, organizing, directing, and controlling, and implies effective leadership (^{Gill, 2002}). Leadership is something that leaders do, but the vast majority confuses the who with the what; this is observed in the study of organizational change (^{By, 2020}). Several authors suggest focusing studies on leadership as purpose (^{Kempster, Jackson, & Conroy, 2011}), on leadership ethics (^{Shakeel, Kruyen, & Van Thiel, 2019}), or the leader’s role in processes of change (^{Hussain, Lei, Akram, Haider, Hussain, & Ali, 2018}).

The focus of the present research is change as management. Leadership is considered a purpose in which the leader interprets the environment for the organization’s survival or to face a common enemy. It is the leader’s influence to unite their followers according to their shared vision (^{Canterino, Cirella, Piccoli, & Shani, 2020}) or to seek support to face a crisis, overcoming resistance to change (^{Kotter, 1995}). It is always assumed that it is to achieve a courageous purpose.

In the last decade, lean thinking in service organizations has been addressed by several authors (^{Gupta, Sharma, & Sunder M, 2016}; ^{Aydin & Birbil, 2018}; ^{De Vries, Roy, & De Koster, 2018}; ^{Smith, Paton, & MacBryde, 2018}; ^{Spasojevic, Lohmann, & Scott, 2018}; ^{Syltevik, Karamperidis, Antony, & Taheri, 2018}; ^{Van Demark, Smith, & Fiegen, 2018}; ^{Zhu, Johnson, & Sarkis, 2018}). In services, the success of using lean thinking depends on its adaptation to each specific situation, considering the type of work, and, as an essential element, the customer’s perspective (^{Smith et al., 2018}).

Implementing lean thinking can be considered a transformational change with a top-down change initiative. The objective is to develop a “learning” organization where change is continuous and emergent at all levels; it is the transition from planned to emergent change (^{Pearce & Pons, 2017}). In the literature consulted, no model was found that could be taken as a guide for the use of lean tools in tourism services.

Lean consumption is the continuous process of blending items and services to solve customer problems. It seeks to guarantee the total value that the customer desires with the greatest efficiency and fewest setbacks. Its principles seek the total cost from the point of view of the end customer while encouraging the service provider to optimize the process from the consumer’s position (^{Womack & Jones, 2005}) and are closely linked to lean manufacturing principles. They are:

Lean thinking is moving to an uninterrupted flow of operations that guarantees perfect quality. It requires continuous improvement in three dimensions: reducing wastes, increasing value, and involving people. It is a series of activities or solutions to minimize wastes and improve processes to add CV based on principles. For ^{Woodruff (1997)}, the CV is the customer’s perceived preference by evaluating the attributes that result from a product and that are perceived from its use, and if it is achieved to satisfy their goals and purposes when using it.

A representation of the keyword relationships of 395 of the most relevant articles using the keyword “customer value” between 2015 and 2018 in the ScienceDirect database and in management and business publications is shown in Figure 1.

Source: created by the authors

Figure 1 Representation of keyword relationships in CV articles between 2015 and 2018 

The analysis suggests that the greatest contributions in the CV field are related to value co-creation and customer satisfaction. Other weaker relations, such as change management, customer loyalty, innovation, and lean manufacturing, are present. Based on the density, a weak relationship between the nodes is observed, which means their investigation can generate opportunities for continuity of study. The CV is generated in the interaction between customers and the company, which is why several authors speak of co-creation of the CV (^{Zhang, Jiang, Shabbir, & Du, 2015}; ^{Navarro, Llinares, & Garzon, 2016}; ^{Petri & Jacob, 2016}; ^{Delpechitre, Beeler-Connelly, & Chaker, 2018}; ^{Sheth, 2019}; ^{Friend, Malshe & Fisher, 2020}).

CV has no exact definition or precise methodology (^{Mencarelli & Rivière, 2014}; ^{Gallarza, Arteaga, & Gil-Saura, 2019}). Value is a chimera that has proven to be highly desired, the praxeology of value is under construction (^{Arnould, 2014}). It is defined in the organization’s services and is measured through value delivered and perceived value.

The CV is the customer’s overall assessment of a product based on the perception of what they receive and deliver (^{Zeithaml, 1988}). The study of CV in tourism services, in conjunction with customer satisfaction and service quality, will continue to play a determining role in the success or failure of organizations (^{Oh et al., 2017}).

OC, tourism services, and LTH are theoretically related from different perspectives; Table 2 shows that of the authors of the research. The input, moderating, and output variables were classified to determine their relationship. In the case of moderating variables, they are conceived as variables that condition behaviors and results.

Studies were found that analyze LTH and OC from the perspective of the need to use change models for lean implementation in an organization (^{Asnan, Nordin, & Othman, 2015}; ^{AlManei, Salonitis, & Tsinopoulos, 2018}). OC studies and tourism services are linked (^{Yang, 2012}). LTH has been used in tourism (^{Vlachos et al., 2013}; E ^{Rauch, Matt, & Linder, 2018}). These empirical investigations demonstrate the relevance and necessity of its application to the tertiary sector.

OC methods are divided into two categories: systematic change and OC management models (^{Al-Haddad & Kotnour, 2015}). The systematic change ones have the processes and tools to help management teams to start, stop, and continue decisions continuously. They usually consider exploring and diagnosing the current situation, planning, and communicating changes through implementation. They are used for constant and small planned changes, except for reengineering. These methods are systematic, cyclical, and unifying. ^{Deming (1986)} and ^{Womack et al. (1997)} are their main authors.

OC management models are broader and more conceptual than systematic change programs, as they help management to combine the change initiative with the organization’s strategy, thereby creating a vision and linking people to the change. They are generally used for deeper and more conceptual changes when compared to change programs (^{Worren, Ruddle, & Moore, 1999}). Their main authors and citation index are shown in Figure 2 (^{Lewin, 1947}; ^{Kotter, 1995}; ^{Schein, 1996}).

Source: created by the authors

Figure 2 Models of changes according to the citation index of their main authors 

A lean manufacturing study based on the theory of change was found in the literature search. It combines three models of change—Lewin, Kotter, and ADKAR—linked to lean tools but without actually validating it in an organization (^{AlManei et al., 2018}). Lewin’s three-stage change model essentially denotes the progression of unfreeze, change, and freeze phases; some authors call it the “theory of change model.” There is nothing as practical as the theory represented by Lewin’s model of change (^{Schein, 1996}).

^{Lewin (1947)} recognizes in section “2. The Conditions of a Stable Quasi-stationary Equilibrium. The study of the conditions for change begins appropriately with an analysis of the conditions for “no change,” that is, for the state of equilibrium” (page 340) the necessity of the analysis of the condition of no change.

The study of OC methods considers change models. Starting from the existing OC theory (Figure 3), developing an OC management model with LTH in tourism services is proposed, the design of which will be shown in the results.

Source: created by the authors

Figure 3 Integration of the OC literature 

In the ScienceDirect database, the search engine TAK (Title, Abstract, and Keywords) was used to intercept the keywords’ lean service’ and ‘change management.’ Articles were found that analyze OC and LTH management in services. In these articles, tourism services were not considered; they are linked to the health and IT sectors.

Lean thinking has been implemented in different hotel service organizations such as Yakai Resort in Japan, Apex Hotels in the UK, Towne Place Suites of Marriot Hotels in the UK, and Starwood Hotels (Erwin ^{Rauch, Damian, Holzner, & Matt, 2016}). The results are mentioned, but their application was in specific departments and not as a system. This suggests the usefulness of linking LTH in tourism services.

Methods

The main methods were: analysis and synthesis, to analyze logically the problem to be investigated by reviewing the literature and specialized documentation; inductive-deductive, to make judgments from the literature reviewed; modeling in the design of the organizational change management model with LTH in tourism services; and structural systemic, for the preparation of the OC management model with LTH in tourism services.

In the diagnosis carried out in the framework of the present research during the first quarter of 2020, a survey that measures all the attributes and services in a hotel was used to analyze the CV and the instrument designed by ^{Zambrano Cancañón, Lao León, and Moreno Pino (2020)} for the wastes. For its application, the 6 151 rooms in the territory of Holguín were taken as the population. The research covered 748, representing 12.6% of the existing ones, with 1 397 clients of the 5 583 that the hotel received during the period, representing 25.02%; a convenience sampling was carried out.

The 42 attributes considered in the customer satisfaction survey were analyzed, then a factor analysis was performed to check whether the variables as a whole mediate the CV. The seven wastes defined by the literature were examined, and 15 variables were used for their analysis. In both cases, variables were measured through a Likert scale, with five response categories in ascending order. Categorical Principal Component Analysis (ACPCat) was used and processed in SPSS version 21.0.

The study of the models was conducted based on 64 change models designed and applied between 1947 and 2018, including lean and change models. The components considered were processes, problems, attitudes, barriers, current status, desired status, action plan, culture, scenarios, control, resistances, planning, implementation, incentives, strategy, environment, performance, threats, opportunities, change agents, feedback, leadership, improvement, structure, policies, job satisfaction, long term, and knowledge.

The components of the change models included the following: value, flow, quality, preventive maintenance, elimination of wastes, teamwork, harmonious products and services, relations with suppliers, time, results, and customer demand—some of which are mentioned in the change models, but in isolation.

The combination of lean and change models is based on the premise that organizations implementing lean thinking apply a procedure related to a change model, so there is a set of common components.

The CV to be delivered will be specific to each organization. Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient yielded .887 >.7, indicating that the instrument is reliable. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) coefficient yielded .885 > .6, the minimum recommended, indicating that the selected variables are measured and considered acceptable for construct validity. This result suggests the relevance of the factor analysis.

Through the study of the commonalities—a variable defined as the proportion of its variance that can be explained by the factorial model obtained—of the extraction, it is evident that the variable corresponding to the decision to return is the worst explained, as the model only reproduces 33.2% of its original variability. The ACPCat method is used as an exploratory technique to reduce the dimensions of a database, adding nominal and ordinal variables in the same way as the numerical ones. All the above fulfills the objective of detecting the variables that best explain the total variance in customer satisfaction in tourism companies, based on considering ten factors that explain 79.39%.

The convergence of five factors or components in the hotel corresponds to the following aspects: waiting, movement, capacity, traceability, and supply, which do not differ from ^{Zambrano Cancañón et al. (2020)}, who classified the existence of wastes in the tourism services industry.

The coronavirus pandemic will generate important changes that will modify the attributes to be considered in services. This is a favorable condition for considering models and generating concrete procedures to be applied in tourism organizations and to use CV as a result variable.

The lack of consensus on the common components and their variety indicated the importance of analyzing them, so a binary matrix was constructed based on their presence or absence, which was processed in SPSS version 21.0. For this purpose, the Cluster method was used with a binary mean, and Ward’s method was used as a conglomerate method. The analysis of the dendrogram of variables showed that at a distance of 10, they were grouped according to four approaches. It was observed that the lean models were presented in the different groups of change models, although at a distance of 25 they were all grouped together, which makes the combination of both feasible.

The models analyzed have three generally similar stages, although they use different names and phases. They always agree that there is a first phase that includes a diagnosis, in which the starting point is the perception of the existence of a problem, an event that destabilizes the current situation, or the phase of planning the change to be implemented, in which the events that will take place are projected, or the resources for the change are secured.

This is followed by the actual change initiation phase, where the strategies and tactics to change the organization are implemented. This is where resistance to change is most strongly felt and where the organization’s culture, values, and norms must be considered to succeed.

The models differ in the last phase since a group of them culminates this cycle from which it can be inferred that the process concludes. They are basically the first in time with names such as institutionalize, refreeze, and terminate, although in their explanations they leave open the possibility that the change is cyclical in some cases, and in others, they explicitly mention it (^{Lewin, 1947}; ^{Schein, 1996}). Other models visualize change as continuous, so it is seen as a development process without a final goal (^{Deming, 1986}; ^{Womack et al., 1997}).

Based on the data provided by SPSS for the variables of the models, the NetDraw application of Ucinet for Windows was used, and the results are shown in Figure 4. The variables are shown grouped by change and lean models, in which it can be observed that there is a common area and relationships between almost all the variables of both models.

Source: created by the authors

Figure 4 Network of relationships between variables of the change and lean models 

This article’s authors believe that OC management with LTH is the process of freezing, unfreezing, changing, and refreezing by adapting the organization’s resources to its environment over time in the search for increased customer value, moving from the current state to the desired state.

Based on the above conceptual trend, the harmonic combination of the main variables of LTH in services is useful in the change model to be used within this sector and to be applied to implement any type of transformation in tourism services. The objective is to illustrate the design of an organizational change management model with lean thinking in tourism service organizations.

Results

Based on the analysis of the concepts, elements, and inadequacies identified, an organizational change management model was proposed, integrating lean thinking into tourism services to increase the CV. It responds to changes in the service industry. To create the model, several authors (^{Lewin, 1947}; ^{Kotter, 1995}; ^{Schein, 1996}; ^{Womack et al., 2015}) and the definition assumed in this research of organizational change management with LTH were taken as a reference. The steps to be followed were:

1. Determination of limitations found in the models studied

2. Objective of the model

Provide an ideal and simplified representation of the organizational change management process with lean thinking in tourism services that contributes to the increase of CV.

3. Principles and approaches on which the model is based

Flexibility: allows adapting to changes in the environment and the particularities of the various tourism services.

Innovative: encourages the participation of all stakeholders in the search for solutions.

Parsimony: combines tools and procedures that are integrated thoroughly, allowing a complex process to be easily understood.

Unifying: its components are related from the model’s conception and contribute to the final results to be achieved.

Logical consistency: due to its structure and logical sequence.

Process approach: it is present throughout the model, from its general conception, in which different stages considered in the change process models are included, to the consideration of the service organization’s activities. It integrates the dimensions of change, all analyzed as a process, developed by Lewin’s model with the incorporation made by the authors. Control is carried out throughout the process in search of dynamic integration with inducers of change that guarantee the necessary synergy to achieve the proposed change’s objectives and contribute to the strategic projection of the tourism services organization.

Proactive approach: the model deals with change proactively by identifying wastes in their initial phase, which facilitates acting in anticipation of these changes.

Focus on improvement: applying the LTH helps to facilitate the effective succession of changes and gradual improvement by innovation and making corrections.

Focus on the environment: facilitates environmental management by considering the reduction of wastes representative of tourism services in the organization at the time of their conception.

Participatory approach: worker participation is present in almost all the model components.

Strategic approach: this is included in the conception of the model where the need to coordinate the elements that make up the company’s management system to fulfill the vision of change and achieve superior results is proposed.

4. Definition of model components and their relationships

OC management involves multiple dimensions, which means that when interrelated with the LTH, the number of dimensions to be considered is even greater, and it is practically impossible to represent them all graphically. The graphic design of the model focused on the main qualities of the process with the components and relationships. To this end, the qualities explicit in the model’s objective were linked. It starts with the consideration of the inputs of the model, which are the needs of the customers and the informational, material, financial, and human resources.

The organization is framed in an environment with legal regulations. There is competition from other facilities. All this develops over time, where leadership plays a determining role. The definition of OC management with LTH in tourism services assumed by the authors in this research is represented in the center of the model, contained in a circle.

Secondly, the existing wastes in the organization must be identified. Being aware of their presence is the beginning of using LTH, which must be considered, as well as the different forces acting in the organization that must be classified as barriers to executing change and facilitating forces.

The dimensions of change—content, objective, process, and analysis of the context of change in the model—make it possible to focus on the change process adapted to the conditions of the development of services in any country.

5. Graphic design of the model

The organizational change management model with LTH in tourism services is based on the authors’ definition of OC management with LTH, shown in Figure 5; its output is a higher CV. Its main novel aspect is the development of an organizational change management model that integrates lean thinking in tourism services to increase CV. Identifying the wastes at the beginning of the change process makes it easier for the organization to prepare for the change, based on the present strengths and the analysis of the dimensions of change.

Source: created by the authors

Figure 5 OC management model with LTH in tourism services 

The following components are involved in the dynamics of the model’s operation:

The OC at the center of the analysis with its four dimensions: the context, the objective, the content, and the change process — These dimensions constantly interact with the stages of the change management process: freeze, unfreeze, change, and refreeze. The harmonious integration of the dimensions and their steps allows the organization to move forward according to the projected change.

LTH as a facilitator of change, which functions as a base and accelerator by incorporating the reduction of wastes representative of tourism services throughout the process — This is based on giving customers what they want, when and where they want it, not wasting their time, solving their problems, and providing a harmonious service, all contributing to increasing the CV.

The constant reduction of the wastes identified at the beginning of the process, which acts as a facilitator of change, represented in the model by gravity — It functions as a small success that translates into the driving force of the projected change since everyone in the organization participates in their identification and elimination. In the present dynamics, wastes are grouped into five dimensions or components: waiting, movement, capacity, traceability, and supply.

The facilitating forces of change depend on each organization, although it is suggested to consider the organizational environment (in order to implement it, it is necessary to choose the right moment where the vast majority supports it), the projected organizational culture, the financial benefits (which are projected when implementing the change), and the customer orientation throughout the process.

The barriers to change are specific to each organization, although it is suggested that the analysis should consider the existing organizational culture, the organizational structure at the time of the change, and the financial needs to implement it.

Hotel chains are decisive in destinations due to market share, economies of scale, level of demand, and market concentration. Their hotels perform better than those not affiliated with them (^{LadoSestayo & Vivel-Búa, 2018}). Therefore, their projection is relevant at the present time.

The crisis in the sector caused by COVID-19 is one of security and confidence, not financial, according to Gabriel Escarrer². Therefore, it will be necessary to sell security in the destinations and guarantee the safety of travelers. Specific measures to be considered are proposed, such as:

The health passport. “You have to give people confidence when it comes to getting on a plane.”

Be prepared to provide quarantine in a hospital or hotel for passengers who show signs of a coronavirus-related health problem on arrival.

Just as 9/11 changed the way people travel, so will this crisis. Escarrer ventures that something will have to be done with rapid tests at airport checkpoints, where it should be ensured that those traveling are healthy. This would reassure travelers from source markets.

The authors agree with these observations, made from the point of view of large companies operating in the Caribbean and Mexico, where they impact tourism. Specifically, the entire sector will have to make significant strategic changes. Herein lies the usefulness of the present model, especially for the tourism sector, where companies will have to work toward finding new value for the client, which is a favorable condition for considering lean thinking as a facilitator of change.

Conclusions

The analysis of the information gathered by consulting the specialized literature confirmed the existence of a theoretical, methodological, and practical basis for OC and LTH management, treated independently by the researchers. Nevertheless, the necessary integration of LTH as a facilitating element in managing OC in tourism services is not explicitly demonstrated.

Based on the OC models analyzed and the recognition of the change model, it is considered appropriate to include the freeze phase at the beginning of any change in tourism services. A model of organizational change management with lean thinking specifically designed for tourism services was developed based on the authors’ definition of OC management with LTH.

It is suggested to conduct research in tourism services based on the model considered since its operationalization is a subject not satisfied in the present research. All tourism companies are going through processes of change in their markets and ways of operating that facilitate the application of the proposed model and the procedures derived from it.

The change in the composition of customers and in the operation of tourism companies will cause variations in the waste factors in tourism. The organizations will present many components that will motivate their study and reduction, which constitutes an opportunity to continue the present research.

The decrease in clients and the loss of tourism revenues cause financial difficulties for tourism companies that endanger their survival. The search for ways to finance marketing and operations is one of the main challenges in times of crisis.

Given the coronavirus’s impact, tourism companies must consider wastes as one of the most effective ways to rejoin the market based on the new conditions and the new CV. Everything that does not contribute to this, wastes, will have to be reduced or eliminated and become one of the sources of financing to fulfill the new conditions imposed by the environment and customers.