Outline of open learning objects

Figure 11 shows a proposal of the three processes involved in the development of OAA: pedagogical, computational and graphic design.

Figure 1 OAA structure proposal. 

Each circumference represents a process, its corresponding team of experts and the type of knowledge that is recommended that they should have. There are also three interceptions between two processes with people who know more than one area of experience, who was assigned a name or activities that they develop. The interception of the three processes results in a learning object. The inclusion of the Creative Commons legend (CC BY-ND-2.5 MX) is to indicate that it is an open educational resource that adapts to the guidelines established in Mexico and that is used by different OA developers that are already available on the Internet.

It is important to mention that the functions of the teams are not rigid as there may be people who have experience in different areas of knowledge for the preparation of the OAA. Also, there may be others that provide different elements that are not contemplated in the diagram and that serve for the preparation of the OAA. ^{Pratt and Nunez (2012)}; ^{Leal-Fonseca (2008)} agree on the need to work on a project with multidisciplinary teams for the development of quality educational materials highlighting the graphic designer as an important element.

The above, coincides with the proposal made in this diagram for the design of OAA, only that Figure 1 proposes the knowledge that specialists in each area should have. Various authors, such as ^{Clares (2011)}; ^{Montes et al. (2017)}, explain that teachers are responsible for doing everything for the OA, often supported by software or OA platforms for its creation, without taking into account the three areas of expertise that stand out.

Model ADDIE

DDEU, ^{García Cué et al. 2018}) explained that in 1975 the ADDIE model appeared, as an improvement of the Instructional System Design (ISD) model, proposed as information systems of educational materials through computational means, developed by the US Army to give mass training to the military personnel who were sent to war. ^{Branson et al. (2018)} explained that the Educational Technology Center of the Florida State University (FSU) made the modifications based on proposed Software Engineering models and explained that ADDIE is an acronym of different phases in the design of pedagogical resources for digital media.

Figure 2 shows a flow diagram of the modified ADDIE model from the originals of ^{MENC (2014)} and ^{CODAES (2015)}. In this figure, diamonds appear with the word AUTHORIZA, which are stages of evaluation.

Figure 2 ADDIE model. 

^{García Cue et al. (2018)}; ^{Meráz et al. (2018)} each explained the ADDIE stages for the OA:

Analysis. The objectives are defined, as well as the necessary data for the design of a learning object are collected. Also, characteristics of the audience that will make use of the OA are defined.

Design. The objectives are written, the structure and sequencing of the learning object is planned. Also, an OA project management plan is created. In addition, the analysis and design stages are evaluated.

Developing. Each one of the elements that will be part of the OA is proposed as texts (with theories, examples, exercises, etc.), elements of reflection, scripts, games, graphics, audio, video and images. At the end of this stage, an evaluation of all the materials is carried out before implementing them.

Implementation. Everything that takes the educational resource or course is integrated. Metadata based on international standards (SCORM or IEEE-LOM) are proposed. In addition, pilot tests and evaluation of the functioning, content and development of the OA are made to be able to publish it.

Evaluation. The effectiveness of the educational resource is evaluated to know if the objectives of your project have been met. The evaluation is done with questionnaires or with different rubrics for each of the ADDIE stages.

Currently, the ADDIE model continues to be used for the development of open educational resources such as the OAA (^{García Cué et al., 2018}) and there are several manuals on the Internet that explain in detail each of its phases such as the ^{MENC (2014)} and ^{NAVEDTRA (2010)}.

PADDIEM approach, architecture and phases

The PADDIEM approach is the result of the integration of the proposals on the ADDIE model of DDEU (1975, in ^{García Cue et al., 2018}), the planning phase (P) of the PADDIE (^{NAVEDTRA, 2010}) and of good engineering practices of Software on the Maintenance stage (M). Figure 3 shows the architecture proposal. Note, that there is a rhombus with the letter E that indicates that an evaluation is made after each stage.

Figure 3 Architecture proposal of the PADDIEM. 

From the previous figure, the following is explained:

The planning phase (P) identifies the resource needs, the problem to be solved (initial diagnosis, economic and human resources viability, scope of the project, supply, demand, end user) and the sequence of events in the development process in the manner of a schedule.

An evaluation of the planning (P) is carried out. If the evaluation is positive, each of the stages of the ADDIE Model is carried out. When finished, the open learning object (OAA) is put into operation.

The operation of OAA is evaluated. If faults are detected or you want to correct the contents enter the maintenance part (M) where the decision is made to modify everything, or it is detected in which ADDIE stage it is necessary to correct it.

In Figure 4, each of the PADDIEM stages is explained with its activities and the multidisciplinary teams that are proposed for the OAA elaboration based on Figure 1.

Figure 4 PADDIEM proposal. 

The proposed PADDIEM is similar to that of ^{NAVEDTRA (2010)}, in both the activities of each phase are explained. They differ in that ^{NAVEDTRA (2010)} does not consider multidisciplinary teams, especially graphic design.

^{Ordoñez et al. (2015)} identified his model as educator for special group (ESG), which consisted of an ADDIE+M, where he proposed a suggested maintenance in working groups and not as proposed in Software Engineering as in the PADDIEM.

Some authors mention the planning and maintenance stages as something external to ADDIE and emphasize that they are not essential since they can be used or not. At present, the ADDIE model continues to be used for the preparation of OAA (^{García-Cué et al., 2018}), but several authors have proposed some improvements or adaptations according to their own software development needs, many of them not mandatory in the process.

Process and skills of the graphic designer for the preparation of OAA in PADDIEM

To exemplify the PADDIEM model, only the stages where the working group of the graphic designers are involved, their skills, as well as some of their activities for the development of an object of learning the subject of the model entity-relationship of agricultural databases will be highlighted:

Planning. Actively participates in each of the decisions of the project, especially those related to the aesthetics, content, navigation routes and users to which the OAA will be directed.

Developing. It proposes, together with the rest of the work teams, a navigation map of the materials selected for the OAA, for example, for the subject of entity model-database relationship (Figure 5). Then, he participates in the development of each of the materials, whether digital, interactive or printed. In addition, both design and computational teams work on the interfaces for an adequate human-machine communication.

Figure 5 Materials proposed for the OAA and navigation map. 

Implementation. Work together with the computer expert to adapt the materials to the OAA repositories.

Evaluation. Participates in the development of instruments to verify if the OAA is suitable for the project.

Maintenance. Verify the proper functioning of the OAA. Also, correct typographical, style, visual, auditory errors, etc. Update the new materials and collaborate with the entire multidisciplinary team so that the OAA is working properly.

An example of the work of the graphic designer in the development stage is shown in Figure 6, which contains the different steps that must be followed for the development of digital educational materials. It starts with the choice of theme, information gathering, organization of information (all through folders and file formats, examples, photos, videos, audios, text files, etc.).

Figure 6 Proposal of the graphic design process for the preparation of digital materials. 

Later, the key aspects of the information are identified, the establishment of the connections between the elements, the beginning of the design process, scripts, sketches or storyboard and layout. To finish, the selection of color, typography and images is made, development of the elements in specialized software, review and selection of proposals based on cognitive ergonomics and user-centered design. Also, delivery of approved material. Finally, prepare the materials for the OAA repositories or educational platforms.

It is considered important to mention that Figure 6 is a general scheme. The construction of some digital educational materials may have minimal variations in certain processes.

In addition, although there are no absolute rules for the design of an educational interface, this does not mean that the principles of homogeneity of elements, composition and basic language of the design of educational virtual environments that favor cognitive ergonomics should be ignored.

Another contribution of the team of graphic designers is the development of simple guides so that different project participants can begin to make each of the OAA materials and comply in a timely manner, as shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7 Guidelines for the preparation of digital materials. 

An example of the process for making a video for OAA is shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8 Making videos. 

The process begins with the choice of set or location taking into account recording schedules with less noise, cleanliness of the site, adequacy of place to make it as aesthetic as possible for the camera. After, the selection of equipment camera or smartphone, tripod, microphone and lighting fixtures. Later on, the entire team is integrated, making the corresponding focus and audio tests. The video is recorded considering that the incorporated elements are inside the camera frame.

Finally, the material is recorded on the hard disk of the computer and it is edited with software for editing open source license videos, free or with a paid license such as imovie, movie maker, after effect, etc. For the publication, the characteristics of the server to be uploaded must be verified, many times the videos use many bytes and must be compressed to be viewed. You can use handBrake which is free software that works for different operating systems.

Another methodology is shown in Figure 9 to make videos using software such as powtoon, after effect, premier, etc.

Figure 9 Methodology for making videos with software  

It begins by making a script of the subject that is going to be treated in the video. Then, the materials are selected to create a story board where everything is ordered and characters, animations, colors, fonts, etc. are chosen. Later, we proceed to the development of the video using software (previously tested) as powtoon taking into account what is proposed in the story board. Next, the video is tested to see the transition times between elements and modify errors. Finally, the finished video is saved in mp4 or other formats. If the video is uploaded to a repository, its size must be taken into account, since it is often very large (or heavy in bytes) and must be reduced. To do so, you can use software that allows you to compress such as the HandBrake.

Materials produced for the OAA based on graphic design processes

Figure 10 shows examples of materials produced based on graphic design processes.

Figure 10 Materials produced.  

Finally, in the PADDIEM methodology there are constant evaluations (Figures 2 and 3), many of them carried out with rubrics previously elaborated by the multidisciplinary team. Within PADDIEM, it is not possible to continue to the next stage if the established parameters are not met, this guarantees that the OAA complies with the objective for which it was created. Later, an investigation is contemplated to students who occupy the OAA and contrast them with others who take the same topic in person to see if the results are similar or different in the teaching-learning process.