Introduction

Soil is a complex, diverse and dynamic natural resource, considered as the basis for the growth and development of organisms and microorganisms (^{Burbano-Orjuela, 2016}; ^{Kopittke et al., 2019}). It provides multiple ecosystem services that are essential to ensure the well-being of human beings, which can be classified into three main categories: regulatory, provision and maintenance, and cultural functions (^{Luna et al., 2022}). In this sense, the soil has different physical, hydrological, chemical and biological properties, which allow the quality and functioning of environmental systems to be indirectly assessed.

However, these characteristics are subject to climatic scenarios (rain and drought, mainly), type of ecosystem, as well as use and management practices, so an imbalance in any of them has an immediate impact on its condition and services associated ecosystems (^{Bai et al., 2018}).

Globally, the transformation of forests to land for agricultural use is one of the most serious concerns that negatively affects soil quality, and also contributes significantly to climate change processes at the regional level (^{Babin et al., 2019}; ^{Lalthakimi et al., 2023}). In general, changes in land use modify the physical properties (bulk density, porosity, coverage, structure, texture, among others), and, therefore, the water contributions (recharge of aquifers) are altered, because these characteristics of the land soil regulates infiltration capacity, surface runoff and erosion processes (^{Yáñez-Díaz et al., 2019}).

According to ^{Galicia et al. (2018)}, in Mexico, temperate forests are important for the recharge of aquifers, since they are located in 77 of the 110 main aquifer recharge and purification zones (total of 653), which coincides with locations of high concentration population (>30 million inhabitants), since they cover the metropolitan areas of Mexico City, Guadalajara and Puebla (^{INEGI, 2010}). However, a large part of these ecosystems have fragmentation problems due to the change in land use and poor choices of management practices, which increases surface runoff, soil loss and the availability of water resources (^{Návar and Synnott, 2000}).

^{Dueñez-Alanís et al. (2006)} point out that the soils of the state of Durango have a marked fragility or vulnerability from poor agricultural and livestock practices, which increase surface runoff, soil erosion and reduce infiltration capacity. In this sense, the transition from forest areas to extensive crop and livestock areas has progressively increased in the study region, which is located in the town of José María Morelos, in the of El Salto, Durango region; where the damage is already reflected in the infiltration capacity, water collection and productivity of the ecosystem.

The objective of this research was to determine the effect of land use change on the physical and hydrological properties of a Vertisol in two depth intervals in forests of Durango, Mexico, and thereby generate information that can be used in decision making and technical criteria for forestry, agricultural and livestock management in the region.

Materials and Methods

Study area

The study area is located in the Sierra Madre Occidental mountain massif in the state of Durango, in the José María Morelos ejido within the Pueblo Nuevo municipality, between 23°50'57” N and -105°18'41” W (Figure, 1).

Agrícola = Agricultural; Forestal = Forest; Pecuario = Livestock.

Figure 1 Location of area of study. 

The dominant vegetation is made up of Pinus cooperi C. E. Blanco, P. leiophylla Schiede ex Schltdl. & Cham., P. teocote Schltdl. & Cham., P. engelmannii Carrière, Juniperus deppeana Steud., Quercus sideroxyla Bonpl. and Q. durifolia Seemen (^{González-Elizondo et al., 2012}).

The average annual precipitation varies from 600 to 1 000 mm in the driest to the most humid parts (^{INEGI, 2010}; ^{Inegi, 2017}).

The dominant soil type corresponds to the Vertisol type, which are dark soils that lack distinctive horizons, with an average depth of 50 cm; they have 30 % or more clay, medium stoniness and cracks that open and close periodically; furthermore, these soils have high natural fertility, which is why they are commonly used for agricultural uses (^{Sotelo et al., 2008}).

Results

The results of the normality and homogeneity of variance tests are presented in Table 1, which shows that all variables met both assumptions, for which one- and two-factor analysis of variance were used to detect significant differences between land uses, as well as between depth.

BD, P% and Ks

The results of the two-factor variance analysis are shown in Table 2, which shows the significant differences between land uses and not between depths.

Table 2 Two-factor analysis of variance for physical variables. 

Origin		Sum of squares	df	Mean square	F	Sig.
Soil use	BD	1.333	2	0.667	47.980	<0.005
	Porosity	1 898.235	2	949.117	47.980	<0.005
	Ks	0.477	2	0.239	3.378	0.047
Depths	BD	0.009	1	0.009	0.626	0.439
	Porosity	12.388	1	12.388	0.626	0.439
	Ks	0.357	1	0.357	5.052	0.059

BD = Bulk density; Ks = Permeability; Sig. = Significance (p value).

Figure 2 shows the values by depth and land use for BD. The forest area had a value of 1.24 g cm^-3 from 0 to 10 cm, while agricultural and livestock uses recorded lower and higher BD values (34 and 24 %) compared to the forest area. For the 10-20 cm depth the trend was similar; the forest area presented an BD of 1.31 g cm^-3 and the agricultural and livestock uses 14 and 17 % higher and lower values, respectively.

Figure 2 Average BD values by land use and depth. 

On the other hand, the P% values are presented in Figure 3; in which the forest area decreased from 53 P% to 40 P% in livestock use for the first depth. From 10-20 cm, the average P% was 53 % for forestry with significant increases and decreases in agricultural (62 P%) and livestock (44 P%) use, respectively.

Figure 3 Average values of P% by land use and depth. 

Soil permeability (Ks) changed significantly between land uses (Table 3). The average Ks values of the forest area were 0.0013 cm s^-1, with a slight reduction in livestock use (0.0011 cm s^-1) and significant increases in agricultural use (0.0019 cm s^-1).

Table 3 Average permeability values by land use. 

Land use	Depth	Ks (cms -1)
Forest	0-10 cm	0.0013
	10-20 cm	0.0012
	Average	0.0013a
Livestock	0-10 cm	0.0016
	10-20 cm	0.0006
	Average	0.0011a
Agricultural	0-10 cm	0.0019
	10-20 cm	0.0019
	Average	0.0019b

Infiltration

Table 4 shows the results of the analysis of variance of land use for the variables that make up the infiltration process; all variables presented significant differences.

Table 4 Analysis of variance for infiltration variables. 

Variable	Sum of squares	df	Square mean	F	Sig.
Ii (mm h-1)	2 565 600	2	1 282 800	36.034	<0.001
Ib (mm h-1)	0.952	2	0.476	7.006	0.027
Ia (mm)	0.922	2	0.461	6.609	0.030

Ii = Initial infiltration; Ib = Soil infiltration capacity; Ia = Total infiltrated sheet; Sig. = Significance (p value).

Variable Ii was 680 mm h^-1 in the forest area, with an increase of 145 % in the agricultural area and a decrease of 40 % in livestock use. The Ib was similar between the forest area and livestock use, however, it increased by 500 % in the agricultural area. While the Ia presented the following order of descending: agricultural>forest>livestock (Table 5).

Table 5 Average values of infiltration variables by land use. 

Land use	Ii (mm h-1)	Ib (mm h-1)	Ia (mm)
Agrícultural	1 660b±242	338.96b±190	830b±500
Forest	680a±150	67.31a±10	182.33a±22
Livestock	420a±160	59.72a±40	145.33a±108

Ii = Initial infiltration; Ib = Soil infiltration capacity; Ia = Total infiltrated sheet; ± Standard desviation.

Figure 4 shows the infiltration curves for each land use. Three different periods can be seen: first, the initial infiltration rate is high and remains constant for a short time (<10 min) in the three land uses; subsequently it drops considerably, with agricultural use being the one that manages to last intensely until before minute 45, while that in forestry and livestock it is observed before minute 15; finally, a third moment of stabilization can be seen (where the curve becomes more asymptotic) called soil infiltration capacity, which is seen before 120 minutes in agricultural use, while in forestry and livestock use it is observed about 105 minutes.

Ii = Initial infiltration of the forest area; Ib = Soil infiltration capacity of the forest area.

Figure 4 Average infiltration speed by land use. 

Discussion

The results of this study showed significant differences in infiltration, permeability and physical properties between land uses and the forest area, which can accelerate soil degradation processes and directly impact the multiple ecosystem services offered by the forest soil (^{Béjar-Pulido et al., 2021}).

The value of the infiltration capacity of the forest soil is similar to those reported by ^{Pérez-Hernández et al. (2023)} for temperate forests (Mean: 1 600±1 100 mm h^-1). On the other hand, ^{Woerner's (1989)} assessment for the average bulk density indicates that for the forest area and livestock use it was low class (1.27 cm^-3) and medium class (1.51 g cm^-3), respectively, while agricultural use was considered very low (0.93 g cm^-3).

^{Zemke et al. (2019)} point out that in forest soils, aerial cover and soil cover (woody material, leaf litter and humus) play an important role since they regulate the entry of water into the soil, so its elimination can cause variations that are reflected in increases and decreases significantly. Specifically, ^{Landini et al. (2007)} mention that trees play an important role in the infiltration of water into the soil since it defines the levels of precipitation interception, moisture content and amount of organic matter in the soil, variables that significantly influence the infiltration, as well as its permeability.

According to the observed values of infiltration in the different land uses, the agricultural area caused a more significant effect on this hydrological property, particularly it recorded increases of more than 100 % on the variables of Ii (mm h^-1), Ib (mm h^-1) and Ia (mm) with respect to livestock and forestry uses. The results of the present study are similar to the values by ^{Yáñez-Díaz et al. (2019)}, who evaluated the response of a Vertisol soil with different management systems (agriculture, forest plantation, Tamaulipas thorn scrub and grasslands), where agriculture stood out as the change in land use that caused the most significant modifications on physical soil properties and water availability.

^{Martínez et al. (2015)}, ^{Torres et al. (2016)}, ^{Lozano-Trejo et al. (2020)} and ^{Béjar-Pulido et al. (2021)} point out that the infiltration capacity and permeability of the soil may be higher in agricultural uses compared to forest areas, because the soil structure is constantly altered by tillage activities and crop rotations, which favors the formation of cracks, the increase in pores and low bulk density, which increases the movement of water in the soil; however, the degree of water movement depends on the nature of the soil type. However, ^{Gómez et al. (2014)} mention that, as infiltration increases in agricultural areas, they demand a greater amount of water to keep crop production, which is why they suggest incorporating organic matter such as fertilizers, to optimize the infiltration capacity of the soil, which should range between 40 and 70 mm h^-1; in this sense, the infiltration capacity of the soil for agricultural use evaluated was greater than 300 mm h^-1.

In a similar way, ^{Villagra-Mendoza et al. (2023)} determined that increased infiltration in agricultural use is common in Vertisols, in which, being bare and subject to continuous subsoiling, soil moisture and bulk density are reduced, while porosity and permeability increase, and, therefore, its saturation and infiltration capacity can increase too; in contrast to forest soil, where by maintaining its organic layer (litter and humus) and vegetation, soil evaporation is lower and moisture levels remain in a good condition; with rainfall, these components raise the retention time of soil water, which, afterwards, slowly incorporates to the ground (^{Lozano-Trejo et al., 2020}).

On the other hand, ^{Hidalgo et al. (2019)} highlight the importance of soil organic matter for the formation and stability of soil aggregates; regardless of the type of land use, they consider that any imbalance in the soil organic matter content (gains or losses) will have a direct impact on the physical and hydrological processes of the soil.

^{Sánchez et al. (2003)} and ^{Yáñez-Díaz et al. (2019)} mention that in agricultural uses two scenarios can occur, the first during the beginning of cultivation and the second during the harvest process. During the harvest period, the soil tends to increase compaction and reduce water flow significantly; however, these characteristics are partially restored by subsoils and crops; in this sense, the response of the physical and hydrological variables of Vertisol coincide with the aforementioned aspects.

The results of the physical and hydrological variables of livestock use with respect to those obtained in the forest can be attributed to the effect of trampling by livestock, which has already been recorded in several studies at a global level, in which it is described that the compaction of the soil can affect the first 20 cm of its depth (^{Karlin et al., 2019}), which agrees with the depths analyzed in the present study. ^{Gómez et al. (2014)} mention that in these areas, livestock extensively take advantage of the plant cover made up, to a large extent, of grasses, which causes the soil structure to weaken; this considerably reduces the proportion of soil pores due to animal load and, therefore, the levels of water entry into the profile decrease significantly.

In this study, the variability of infiltration and permeability between land uses and the forest area can be associated with changes in its physical characteristics, mainly the bulk density and total porosity, which were affected by the compaction of the soil due to trampling and movement of livestock, the elimination of cover and subsoil (^{Torres et al., 2016}; ^{Martínez et al., 2023}). Therefore, these soils with abundant rainfall are more susceptible to developing some degree of degradation compared to forested areas where all tree strata, as well as ground cover and roots, function as agents that moderate the entry speed and circulation of water in the ground (^{Muñoz-Villers et al., 2015}; ^{Lozano-Trejo et al., 2020}).

The Ks values can be considered low for the forest area and livestock use, and moderately low for agricultural use. The above agrees with ^{Kumar et al. (2017)}, who recorded higher Ks values for soils with agricultural management compared to forest, where bulk density and porosity of the soil are the variables responsible for marking significant differences. It should be noted that this variable is influenced by vegetation cover, depth, slope, texture and errors in its determination (^{Figueroa et al., 2018}; ^{Nuñez-Peñaloza et al., 2022}).

The trends of soil permeability results have already been published in other investigations for the Vertisol type, in which it is pointed out that a change from forest to agricultural land use can significantly increase the permeability of the substrate. In contrast, when the change in land use is from forest to livestock, there are slower flows derived from the loss of cover and trampling of livestock (^{Yáñez-Díaz et al., 2019}).

Conclusions

Land use changes modify the physical and hydrological properties of the soil and, therefore, its ecosystem services, such as water infiltration, are significantly altered.

From the conservation perspective, the forest area remained in-between the assessment of physical and hydrological properties, which made it possible to clearly distinguish the effects specifically of each land use. The vegetation present, as well as the soil cover, play an important role in regulating the physical and hydrological processes of the soil.

Infiltration varied significantly in agricultural use, with increases greater than 100 % compared to the forest use. The initial infiltration, the infiltration capacity and the total infiltrated sheet followed the same trend in descending order (agricultural>forest>livestock).

Livestock use recorded the highest values of the physical properties of the soil (bulk density and porosity) and the lowest values of the hydrological properties of the soil (infiltration and permeability), which can be attributed to the constant trampling of livestock that considerably modifies the structure of the soil.